French Revolution Causes and Napoleonic Era study guide summary

 

 

 

French Revolution Causes and Napoleonic Era study guide summary

 

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French Revolution Causes and Napoleonic Era study guide summary

French Revolution & Napoleonic Era

A. The French Revolution

1. The Crisis of the French Monarchy

a) Causes of the Revolution

 French Revolution was the first attempt in Europe to put into practice the dramatic ideals of the Enlightenment
- liberty, equality, and fraternity
revolution was successful
- ended the absolutism of the Old Regime in France
during the Napoleonic wars the followed
- spread democratic ideals throughout Europe
attempts to put their ideals into practice
- revolutionaries experimented with several constitutional models
serve as case studies of the strengths and weaknesses of various forms of constitutional government
French Revolution heralded the advent of modern nationalism and patriotism
- all of the beneficial and negative effects of both
French Revolution was in fact not a single event
- series of occurrences
underlying reasons for the first stage of the Revolution in 1789
- 1) inequalities of the social system of the ancien regime
- 2) opposition of the intellectuals to the status quo
- 3) absolute power of the French monarchy
- 4) personal inadequacies of Kings Louis XV and XVI
- 5) financial crisis which confronted the French government in the years immediately preceding the Revolution
first stage of the Revolution in 1789
- brought political and social changes
- king, Louis XVI, was forced to accept a constitution limiting his authority
- privileges of the French aristocracy were swept away
- fact that such radical changes were wrought in a six – month period suggests a great depth and breadth of dissatisfaction with the Old Regime

b) The Old Regime

 1789
- France, like the rest of Europe, still clung to an outdated social system
- emerged in the Middle Ages
ancien regime, or old order, everyone in France belonged to one of three classes
- First Estate, made up of the clergy
- Second Estate, made up of the nobility
- Third Estate, the vast majority of the population

(1) The First Estate - The Clergy

 First Estate consisted of all of the clergy
- dominated by the higher clergy, the archbishops, bishops, and abbots
- drawn from the ranks of the nobility
Middle Ages
- Church had exerted great influence throughout Christian Europe
1789
- French clergy still enjoyed enormous wealth and privilege
- Church owned about 10 percent of the land
- collected tithes
- paid no direct taxes to the state
higher clergy enjoyed sizable incomes
ordinary parish priests were not much better off than the people they served
First Estate did provide some social services
- Nuns, monks, and priests ran schools, hospitals, and orphanages
philosophes targeted the Church for reform
- criticized the idleness of some clergy
- Church interference in politics
- tolerance of dissent
many clergy condemned the Enlightenment for undermining religion and moral order

(2) The Second Estate - The Nobility

 1600s, Richelieu and Louis XIV had crushed the nobles’ military power but give them other rights
- under strict royal control
- rights included top jobs in government, the army, the court, and the Church
At Versailles
- ambitious nobles competed for royal appointments
- idle courtiers enjoyed endless entertainments. 
nobility numbered about 400,000 persons
- held a virtual monopoly on the highest and best – paid positions in the state and church
owned about one – fifth of the land
exempt from direct taxes
Middle Ages, noble knights had defended the land. 
Many nobles, however, lived far from the center of power
- owned land
- had little money income
- felt the pinch of trying to maintain their status in a period of rising prices
Many nobles hated absolutism
- resented the royal bureaucracy that employed middle – class men in positions
- once had been reserved for the aristocracy
- feared losing their traditional privileges
- especially their freedom from paying taxes

(3) The Third Estate – The Peasants, Middle Class, & Urban Workers
(a) Middle Class

 1789
- Third Estate numbered about 27 million people
- 98 percent of the population
top sat the bourgeoisie, or middle class
- included prosperous bankers, merchants, and manufacturers
- included the officials who staffed the royal bureaucracy
- lawyers, doctors, journalists, professors, and skilled artisans
middle – class townspeople were better off than the peasants
even more discontented
- desired an abolition of the economic restrictions imposed by mercantilist regulation
- fairer distribution to the tax burden
- greater voice in public affairs

(b) Peasants

 bulk of the Third Estate were rural peasants
- 9 out of 10 people in France
peasants were free of serfdom
many owned the land they farmed
Some were prosperous landowners
- hired laborers to work for them
Others were tenant farmers or day laborers
peasants were exploited by both the government and the nobility
- had to pay high taxes
- salt tax (the gabelle)
vestiges of the manorial system
- required the peasants to pay rent to noblemen who had once controlled the land
- perform the corvée and other services for them
- corvée is unpaid labor to repair roads and bridges
peasants were not particularly concerned with political rights
- wanted relief from high taxes
- end to their manorial obligations

(c) Urban Workers

 poorest members of the Third Estate were urban workers
- included apprentices, journeymen, and others who worked in industries
- printing, clothmaking, servants, stable hands, porters, construction workers, or street sellers
large number of the urban poor were unemployed
- some turned to begging or crime
late eighteenth century, the urban working class was relatively small
- In Paris, however, the workers were numerous enough to play an active and influential role during the revolution

(4) Discontent

 In towns and cities, Enlightenment ideas led people to question the inequalities of the old regime
Why, people demanded, should the first two estates have such great privileges at the expense of the majority?
- Throughout France, the Third Estate called for the privileged classes to pay their share

(5) Louis XVI

 Louis XV came to the throne at the age of five
- 1715
- reigned for 59 years
- described as intelligent but lazy and bored
- until 1743 he delegated considerable power to his childhood tutor, Cardinal Fleury
Louis XV died in 1774
- throne went to his 20 – year – old grandson
Louis XVI
- dull – minded and indecisive
- critical years before and during the revolution
- Louis XVI was poorly equipped to cope with the myriad of problems confronting his people
shallow wife, Marie Antoinette, the daughter of Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria
- equally insensitive to the plight of their subjects. 
One of their chief pastimes was hunting
- Louis slew thousands of animals
- by one estimate 190,525 animals in a 13 – year period
- each killing of which he carefully noted in his diary.
- Marie Antoinette collected riding costumes – 31 outfits in November 1781 alone

c) Economic Troubles

 One of the causes of the decline was a mushrooming financial crisis
- due in part to years of deficit spending
- government’s spending more money than it takes in

(1) The Burden of Debt

 Louis XIV had left France deeply in debt
Wars strained the treasury even further
- Seven Years’ War and the American Revolution. 
Costs generally had risen in the 1700s
lavish court soaked up millions
bridge the gap between income and expenses
- government borrowed more and more money
Various agencies had ill – defined and overlapping functions
- served to delay action on important issues
No strong figure emerged to provide a sense of order and direction
1789
- half its tax income went just to pay interest on this enormous debt
To solve the financial crisis
- government would have to increase taxes, reduce expenses, or both
- nobles and clergy fiercely resisted any attempt to end their exemption from taxes

(2) Poor Harvests

 Other economic troubles added to the financial crisis
general economic decline had begun in the 1770s. 
bad harvests sent food prices soaring
- late 1780s
- brought hunger to poorer peasants and city dwellers
Hard times and lack of food inflamed these people. 
- In towns, people rioted, demanding bread
- In the countryside, peasants began to attack the manor houses of the nobles

(3) Failure of Reform
(a) Jacques Turgot

 Louis XVI attempted to promote much needed financial and economic reforms
named the physiocrat Turgot to the post of controller general of finances
- 1774
Turgot sought to cut government expenditures
abolish the trade guilds
- which restricted the growth of the French economy
To relieve the peasants
- proposed ending the corvée
- requirement that the peasants perform labor on the roads
efforts to reduce spending aroused considerable opposition
- many people benefited from government spending
Turgot’s critics, especially the nobility, became increasingly outspoken in their attacks on his policies
Louis XVI dismissed him only twenty months after his appointment to office
- 1776
- Turgot’s dismissal served as a powerful symbol of the inability of the French monarchy to deal with its problems

(b) Jacques Necker

 heirs of Louis XIV were not the right men to solve the economic crisis that afflicted France
Louis XV pursued pleasure before serious business
- ran up more debts
- ruled from 1715 to 1774
grandson, Louis XVI, was well – meaning but weak and indecisive
- wisely chose Jacques Necker, a financial wizard, as an adviser
Necker urged the king to reduce extravagant court spending, reform government, and abolish burdensome tariffs on internal trade. 
Necker proposed taxing the First and Second estates
- nobles and high clergy forced the king to dismiss the would – be reformer
Louis XVI dismissed Necker in 1781
- fiscal crisis intensified
- increasingly more desperate king recalled Necker in 1788

(c) Summon the Estates General?

 attempt to win popular support for new taxes
- July 1788
Louis XVI decided to summon into session the Estates General
- consultative assembly that had last met in 1614
Estates General represented the three legally defined classes (estates)
French kings had not called the Estates General for 175 years
- fearing that nobles would use it to recover the feudal powers that they had lost under absolute rule
reform – minded nobles, the Estates General seemed to offer a chance
- carry out changes like those that had come with the Glorious Revolution in England. 
- hoped that they could bring the absolute monarch under the control of the nobles and guarantee their own privileges

d) Calonne’s Reform Plan and the Assembly of Notables*

2. The Revolution of 1789

a)  Louis XVI Calls the Estates General

 1788 came to a close
- France tottered on the verge of bankruptcy
- Bread riots were spreading
- nobles, fearful of taxes, were denouncing royal tyranny
baffled Louis XVI finally summoned the Estates General
- meet at Versailles the following year
king declared that it should consist of
- 300 representatives of the clergy
- 300 representatives of the nobility
- 600 representatives of the Third Estate

(1) The Cahiers

 Louis had all three estates prepare cahiers, or notebooks, listing their grievances
- reforms such as fairer taxes
- freedom of the press
- regular meetings of the Estates General
- one town, shoemakers denounced regulations that made leather so expensive they could not afford to make shoes
- Some peasants demanded the right to kill animals that were destroying their crops
cahiers testified to boiling class resentments
- One called tax collectors ‘bloodsuckers of the nation who drink the tears of the unfortunate from goblets of gold.’ 
Another one of the cahiers condemned the courts of nobles as ‘vampires pumping the last drop of blood’ from the people
Another complained that ’20 million must live on half the wealth of France while the clergy… devour the other half.’
nobility gave renewed expression to its demands for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy
- aristocrats would exercise a substantial degree of control
Third Estate called for an end to the special privileges enjoyed by the clergy and nobility
peasants demanded
- abolition of the gabelle, as well as the corvée and other remnants of manorialism
middle class
- called for an end to mercantilist restrictions on industry and trade
- reform of the often corrupt courts of law
- establishment of a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament and guarantees of civil liberties

(2) The Tennis Court Oath

 Delegates to the Estates General from the Third Estate were elected
- only propertied men could vote
- mostly lawyers, middle – class officials, and writers
- familiar with the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, and other philosophes
- went to Versailles not only to solve the financial crisis but also to insist on reform.
Estates General convened in May 1789
delegates were deadlocked over the issue of voting
- Traditionally, each estate had met and voted separately
- Each group had one vote
- First and Second estates always outvoted the Third Estate two to one
This time, the Third Estate wanted all three estates to meet in a single body
- votes counted ‘by head.’
- 610 members of the Third Estate would thus outnumber the 591 members of the combined First and Second estates
Siding with the nobles, the king ordered the estates to follow the old rules
- representatives of the Third Estate, however, became more and more determined to wield power
leading spokesman for their viewpoint was a clergyman sympathetic to their cause
- Abbé Sieyès
- bold pamphlet, he had written, ‘What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been up to now in the political order? Nothing. What does it demand? To become something herein.’
Abbé Sieyès rose to address an excited gathering of the bourgeois deputies
- June 16
- suggested that the Third Estate change its name to the National Assembly
- called on the new assembly to pass laws and reforms in the name of the French people
long night of excited debate
- deputies of the Third Estate agreed to Sieyès’ idea by an overwhelming majority
- vote on June 17, 1789, created the National Assembly
- deputies proclaimed an end to absolute monarchy
- beginning of the representative government
- first deliberate act of revolution
National Assembly found its meeting hall locked and guarded
- Fearing that the king planned to dismiss them
- delegates moved to a nearby indoor tennis court. 
- curious spectators looked on
- delegates took the famous Tennis Court Oath
- swore ‘never to separate and to meet where the circumstances might require until we have established a sound and just constitution.’
reform – minded clergy and nobles joined the Assembly
- Louis XVI grudgingly accepted it
- royal troops gathered around Paris
- rumors spread that the king planned to dissolve the Assembly
king, who had brought back Necker to deal with the financial crisis, again dismissed the popular minister
Food shortages were also getting worse because of the disastrous harvest of 1788
king continued to insist that the estates meet separately
- ordered the National Assembly to disband
Under the leadership of the Comte de Mirabeau (1749 – 1791), the National Assembly defied the king
June 27, Louis XVI gave way and ordered the first two estates to meet with the National Assembly. 
During this first period of the French Revolution
- the period of the National Assembly
- control was in the hands of moderates drawn from the middle class and the liberal nobility

b) Fall of the Bastille

 Paris seized the spotlight from the National Assembly meeting in Versailles
- July 14, 1789
- streets buzzed with rumors that royal troops were going to occupy the capita
More than 800 Parisians assembled outside the Bastille
- grim medieval fortress used as a prison for political and other prisoners
- crowd was demanding weapons and gunpowder believed to be stored there
- stood as a hate symbol of the arbitrary rule of the Bourbons
commander of the Bastille refused to open the gates
- opened fire on the crowd
- many people were killed
enraged mob broke through the defenses
- killed the commander and five guards
- released a handful of prisoners
- found no weapons
aftermath of the taking of the Bastille
- Necker was restored to power
- Jean Bailey (1736 – 1793) became mayor of Paris
- Marquis de Lafayette (1757 – 1834), a hero of the American Revolution, became commander of the newly created National Guard
red, white, and blue tricolor flag of the revolution was adopted
many aristocrats fled France
When told of the attack, Louis XVI asked, ‘Is it a revolt?’
- ‘No, sire,’ replied a noble. ‘It is a revolution.’
fall of the Bastille was important for several reasons. 
- Militarily, it force Louis to give up his plan of bringing his foreign troops into the city
- Politically, it reduced the king’s power and saved the National Assembly
storming of the Bastille quickly became a symbol of the French Revolution
- Supporters saw it as a blow to tyranny, a step toward freedom
- French still celebrate July 14 as Bastille Day
- French national holiday

c) The ‘Great Fear’ and the Night of August 4

 political crisis of 1789 coincided with the worst famine in memory
- Starving peasants roamed the countryside
- flocked to the towns
- swelled the ranks of the unemployed
- grain prices soared
- even people with jobs had to spend up to 80% of their income on bread

(1) The Great Fear

 rumors ran wild
- set off what was later called the ‘Great Fear.’
- summer of 1789
- Tales of attacks on villages and towns spread panic. 
- Fueled by the rumor of an aristocratic ‘famine plot’ to starve or burn out the population
Inflamed by famine and fear, peasants unleashed their fury on nobles who were trying to reimpose medieval dues
- attacked the homes of nobles
- set fire to old manor records
- stole grain from storehouses
- violent attacks died down after a period of time
- clearly demonstrated peasant anger with an unjust regime
king’s brother, the count of Artois, went into exile after the October Days
- soon followed by more than 20,000 other émigrés,
- most of whom were nobles, other people of means, and clergymen
effort to halt the disorder in the countryside
- National Assembly ended the remnants of manorialism
- August 4
- including the corvée, and the privileges of the nobility
- All French citizens now became equal in the eyes of the law

(2) Paris in Arms

 Paris was in turmoil
- capital and chief city of France
- revolutionary center
variety of factions competed to gain power. 
Moderates looked to Marquis de Lafayette
- aristocratic ‘hero of two worlds’ who had fought alongside George Washington in the American Revolution
- headed the National Guard
- largely middle – class militia organized in response to the arrival of royal troops in Paris
- first group to don the tricolor – a red, white, and blue badge which was eventually adopted as the national flag of France
Paris Commune replaced the royalist government of the city
- more radical group
- mobilize whole neighborhoods for protests or violent action to further the revolution
Newspapers and political clubs blossomed everywhere
- many even more radical than the Commune
- Some demanded an end to the monarchy
- spread scandalous stories about the royal family and members of the court

d) The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

 Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
- August 27, 1789
- first step toward writing a constitution
document was modeled in part on the American declaration announced
‘born and remain free and equal in rights.’
- proclaimed that all male citizens were equal before the law
- provided for freedom of speech and of the press
- freedom of assembly
- right to petition the government
- freedom of religion
- freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment. 
- called for taxes to be levied according to ability to pay
Every Frenchman had an equal right to hold public office ‘with no distinction other than that of their virtues and talents.’ 
enjoyed natural rights to ‘liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.’ 
- writings of Locke and the philosophes
- constitution insisted that governments exist to protect the natural rights of citizens
doctrine of popular sovereignty
- providing that the ‘source of all sovereignty is essentially in the nation
principles were captured in the enduring slogan of the French Revolution, ‘Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
Louis XVI was slow to accept the reforms of the National Assembly
- Parisians grew suspicious as more royal troops arrived
- Nobles continued to enjoy gala banquets while people were starving
- By autumn, anger again turned to action

e) The Parisian Women’s March on Versailles

 thousands of women streamed down the road that led from Paris to Versailles
- October 5
- ‘Bread!’ they shouted
- They demanded to see the king
Much of the crowd’s anger was directed at the queen, Marie Antoinette
- married Louis in 1770
come under attack for being frivolous and extravagant
- eventually grew more serious
- even advised the king to compromise with moderate reformers
she remained a source of scandal
- radical press spread the story that she had answered the cries of hungry people for bread by saying, ‘Let them eat cake.’
- story was untrue
- helped inflame feelings against the queen
women refused to leave Versailles until the king met their most important demand to return to Paris. 
- king agreed
crowd, with the king in tow, set out for the city
- next morning
- head of the procession rode women perched on barrels of seized cannons
- told bewildered spectators that they were bringing Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and their son back to Paris
- ‘Now we wont have to go so far when we want to see our king,’
- Crowds along the way cheered the king, who now wore the tricolor
royal family moved into the Tuileries palace
- In Paris
- Louis was a virtual prisoner
- next three years

3. The Reconstruction of France

a) Olympe de Gouges’ Declaration of the Rights of Women*

b) Civil Constitution of the Clergy

 National Assembly confiscated the land owned by the Roman Catholic Church
- November 1789
- attempt to deal with the financial crisis faced by the French state
issued paper money, known as assignats, using the confiscated land as security
- assignats declined rapidly in value
- the government’s financial problems persisted
church has lost its major source of income
- Deprived of its land
- French government now assumed the obligation of paying the salaries of the clergy
some 400 million francs of Church property began to be offered for sale at auction
- roughly 10% of the nation’s land
- primary beneficiaries of the sale were urban bourgeois and prosperous peasants
- could marshal enough cash to buy the land put up for sale
poor peasant were thus able to reduce their debts with inflated currency
Among the consequences of the sale of Church lands
- some parts of France more land was brought under cultivation of peasants
- clearing of lands also put increased pressure on the environment as trees and brush were cleared to make room for crops and small – scale farming
National Assembly proceeded to reorganize the administration of the church
- adopting the Civil Constitution of the Clergy
- July 12, 1790
Bishops and priests would now be elected by the people
clergy were required to swear an oath of allegiance to support the new arrangement
- Over half of the clergy refused to do so
- nonjurors, as they were called from the French word jurer (‘to swear’), became bitter opponents of the revolution, as did many faithful Catholic laypeople
ended papal authority over the French Church
dissolved convents and monasteries
Large numbers of French peasants also rejected the changes
- conservative concerning religion
government punished clergy who refused to support the Civil Constitution
huge gulf opened between revolutionaries in Paris and the peasantry in the provinces
The Civil Constitution of the French Clergy altered the course of the Revolution
- widely resisted
- contributed directly to the growth of a counter – revolutionary movement
clergy of the west of France (particularly Brittany), the north, Alsace, and parts of he south
- refused the Civil Constitution
rest of France, the clergy evinced at least formal acceptance of the Revolution
- many Catholics, Louis XVI among them, believed themselves obliged by faith to refuse to take sacraments from the ‘juring’ clergy
- those who had taken the oath

c) Constitution of 1791

 National Assembly completed its main task by producing a constitution
- Constitution of 1791
Louis XVI accepted the new constitution
- September 14, 1791
- established a limited monarchy with separation of powers between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches
- king and his ministers constituted the executive
- their authority was limited by a one – house parliament, the Legislative Assembly
Lawmakers would be elected by tax-paying male citizens
only about 50,000 men in a population of more than 27 million could qualify as candidates to run for the Assembly
constitution replaced the old provinces with 83 departments of roughly equal size
abolished the old provincial courts
reformed laws
middle – class framers of the constitution protected private property
supported free trade
compensated nobles for land seized by the peasants,
abolished guilds
forbade urban workers to organize labor unions
Constitution of 1791 seemed to complete the revolution

d) Counterrevolutionary Activity

(1) Flight to Varennes

 Marie Antoinette and others had been urging the king to escape their humiliating situation
- Louis finally gave in
- night of June 20, 1791
coach rolled north from Paris toward the border. 
- king disguised as a servant
- queen dressed as a governess and the royal children
Captured in Varennes in northeastern France
- king and his family were compelled to return to the capital
- someone who held up a piece of currency wit the king’s face on it
Louis’ dash to the border showed the he was a traitor to the revolution

(2) Declaration of Pillnitz

 king of Prussia and the emperor of Austria – who was Marie Antoinette’s brother – issued the Declaration of Pilnitz
- August 1791
two monarchs threatened to intervene to protect the French monarchy
- declaration may have been mostly bluff
- revolutionaries in France took the threat seriously and prepared for war
- revolution was about to enter a new, more radical phase of change and conflict

(3) War with Europe

 radicals soon held the upper hand in the Legislative Assembly
war of words between French revolutionaries and European monarchs moved into the battlefield
- April 1792
Eager to spread the revolution and destroy tyranny abroad
Legislative Assembly declared war first on Austria,
- then on Prussia, Britain, and other states
great powers expected to win an easy victory against France
- land divided by revolution
- fighting that began in 1792 lasted on and off until 1815

4. The End of the Monarchy: A Second Revolution

 Someone who had left Paris in 1791 and returned in 1793 could have gotten lost
- Almost 4,000 streets had new names
- Louis XV Square was renamed the Square of the Revolution
- King – of – Sicily Street, named for the brother of Louis XVI, had become the Rights of Man Street
Renaming streets was one way that Jacobins tried to wipe out all traces of the old order
Revolution entered a radical phase
- 1793
- France experienced one of the bloodies regimes in its long history
- determined leaders sought to extend and preserve the revolution
Dismal news about the war heightened tensions
- Well – trained Prussian forces were cutting down raw French recruits
- Royalist officers deserted the French army
- joining émigrés and others hoping to restore the king’s power

a) Emergence of the Jacobins

 newly elected Legislative Assembly held its first meeting
- October 1, 1791
- remained in session for less than a year
conservatives and moderates
- wanted to preserve the constitutional settlement of 1791
- weak and became weaker
influence of the radicals increased
- wanted to push the revolution further
- divided into two main groups
Girondists
- leaders came from the area of Bordeaux
- department of the Gironde
Mountain
- name came from the fact that its members occupied the highest seats on the left side of the meeting hall
- Mountain drew its main support from the Jacobin and Cordelier clubs
The Jacobin Club was the most famous political club
- relatively moderate in their views
- gradually became more radical
- demanding the abolition of the monarchy
- establishment of a republic
- mostly middle – class lawyers or intellectuals
- used pampleteers and sympathetic newspaper editors to advance the republican cause
Maximilien Robespierre became one of the Jacobins’ best – known leaders
- 1758 – 1794
The Coreliers were radicals who, like the Jacobins, favored the abolition of the monarchy and the creation of a republic
- Georges – Jacques Danton (1759 – 1794), a lawyer
- Camille Desmoulins (1760 – 1794), a journalist
- Jean – Paul Marat (1743 – 1793), a physician and journalist

b) The Convention and the Role of the Sans-culottes

(1) The September Massacres

 Battle disasters quickly inflamed revolutionaries
- thought the king was in league with invaders
crowd of Parisians stormed the Tuileries
- August 10, 1792
- slaughtered the king’s guards
- royal family fled to the Legislative Assembly
A month later, citizens attacked prisons that held nobles and priests accused of political offenses
- prisoners were killed
- along with many ordinary citizens
Historians disagree about the people who carried out the ‘September massacres.’ 
- Some call them bloodthirsty mobs
- Others, describe them as patriots defending France from its enemies
- most were ordinary citizens fired to fury by real and imagined grievances

(2) Goals of Sans-culottes

 In Paris and other cities, working – class men and women, called sans-culottes
- pushed the revolution into more radical action
many sans-culottes demanded a republic
- 1791
sans-culottes found support among radicals in the Legislative Assembly
- especially the Jacobins

(3) The Policies of the Jacobins

 radicals took control of the Assembly
- Backed by Paris crowds
- called for the election of a new legislative body called the National Convention
 Suffrage was to be extended to all male citizens
- not just to property owners
The Convention that met in September 1792 was a more radical body than earlier assemblies
- voted to abolish the monarchy
- declare France a republic
Deputies then drew up a new constitution for France
The Jacobins controlled the Convention
- set out to erase all traces of the old order
- seized lands of nobles
- abolished titles of nobility

(4) Execution of Louis XVI

 Convention also put Louis XVI on trial as a traitor to France
- December 1792
- guilty of conspiracy against the liberty of the people and the security of the state
king was convicted by a margin of a single vote
- sentenced to death
Louis mounted a scaffold in a public square in Paris
- He tried to speak, but his words were drowned out by a roll of drums
- king was beheaded
- January 21, 1793
October, Marie Antoinette was also executed
- popular press celebrated her death
- queen, however, showed great dignity as she went to her death
Their son, the uncrowned Louis XVII, died of unknown causes in the dungeons of the revolution
The National Convention approved the draft of a constitution establishing a democratic republic
- suspended it for the duration of the war
- constitution never went into effect

5. Europe at War with Revolution

 European rulers increased border patrols to stop the spread of the ‘French plague.’
horror stories that were told by émigrés
- nobles, clergy, and others who had fled France and its revolutionary forces
- reported attacks on their privileges, their property, their religion, and even their lives
‘Enlightened’ rulers turned against French ideas
- Catherine the Great of Russia burned Voltaire’s letters and locked up her critics

a) Edmund Burke Attacks the Revolution

 In Britain, Edmund Burke, who earlier had defended the American Revolution, bitterly condemned revolutionaries in Paris
- predicted all too accurately that the revolution would become more violent
- ‘Plots and assassinations will be anticipated by preventative murder and preventative confiscation.’ 
- ‘When ancient opinions and rules are taken away … we have no compass to govern us.’

b) Suppression of Reform in Britain*

c) The Second and Third Partitions of Poland, 1793, 1795*

6. The Reign of Terror

a) The Republic Defended

(1) The Committee of Public Safety

 danger threatened France on all sides
- early 1793
- country was at war with much of Europe, including Britain, the Netherlands, Spain, and Prussia
Vendée region of France, royalists and priests led peasants in rebellion against the government
Paris, the sans-culottes demanded relief from food shortages and inflation
The Convention itself was bitterly divided between Jacobins and a rival group, the Girondins
Convention created the Committee of Public Safety
- deal with the threats to France
- 12 – member committee

(2) The Levée en Masse

 almost absolute power as it battled to save the revolution
- prepared France for all – out war
- issuing a levée en masse, or mass levy that required all citizens to contribute to the war effort
- conscription of able – bodied men into the armies of the revolution
- August 1793
- army raised about 750,000 men
- the largest ever assembled by a European power
‘All Frenchmen are in permanent requisition for the service of the armies.  The young men shall go to battle; the married men shall forge arms and transport provisions; the women shall make tents and clothing and shall serve in the hospitals; the children shall turn old lint into linen; the aged shall take themselves to the public places in order to arouse the courage of the warriors and preach the hatred of kings and the unity of the Republic’ – Proclamation of the National Convention, August 23, 1793
French armies succeeded in defending the country against invasion
- 1793 – 1794
they occupied the Low Countries, the Rhineland, parts of Spain, Switzerland, and Savoy
- during 1794 – 1795
treaties of Basel ended the war against Prussia and Spain
- signed in March and June 1795
France remained at war with the Austrians and the British
the French invaded Italy
- 1796
- occupying important areas of the country
- forcing the Austrians out of the war
War of the First Coalition had ended
- 1797
- only Great Britain remained at war against France

b) Robespierre

 government battled counterrevolutionaries under the guiding hand of Maximilien Robespierre. 
- shrewd lawyer and politician
- quickly rose to the leadership of the Committee of Public Safety
Among Jacobins, his selfless dedication to the revolution earned him the nickname ‘the incorruptible.’ 
enemies of Robespierre called him a tyrant
Robespierre had embraced Rousseau’s idea of the general will as the source of all legitimate law
promoted religious toleration
wanted to abolish slavery
popular with the sans-culottes
- hated the old regime as much as he did
believed that France could achieve a ‘republic of virtue’ only through the use of terror
- defined as nothing more than ‘prompt, severe, inflexible justice.’ 
- ‘Liberty cannot be secured, unless criminals lose their heads.’

c) The Reign of Terror

 Robespierre was one of the chief architects of the Reign of Terror
- lasted from about July 1793 to July 1794. 
Using as their excuse the crisis of the war
- committees declared they needed to stamp out any threat to their power
ignored established judicial procedures
- set up revolutionary tribunals
rapidly tried and executed about 16,500 ‘enemies’ of the revolution
Another 10,000 to 15,000 were executed without benefit of trial
Spectators greeted death sentences with cries of ‘Hail the Republic!’ or ‘Death to the traitors!’
The Reign of Terror ultimately claimed some 16,000 victims
- Perhaps 40,000 people died
About 15 percent were nobles and clergy
Another 15 percent were middle – class citizens
- often moderates who had supported the revolution in 1789
rest were peasants and sans-culottes
- involved in riots or revolts against the Republic. 
Many were executed including victims of mistaken identity or false accusations by their neighbors. 
Many more were packed into hideous prisons
- where deaths were common
engine of the Terror was the guillotine
- fast – falling blade extinguished life instantly
- member of the legislature, Dr. Joseph Guillotin, had introduced it as more humane method of beheading than the uncertain ax
- guillotine quickly became a symbol of horror
Robespierre explained why the horror was necessary to achieve  the goals of the revolution
- speech given on February 5, 1794
- ‘It is necessary to stifle the domestic and foreign enemies of the Republic or perish with them… The first maxim of our politics ought to be to lead the people by means of reason and the enemies of the people by terror… If the basis of popular government in time of peace is virtue, the basis of popular government in time of revolution is both virtue and terror.’
Reign of Terror consumed its own
- Weary of bloodshed and fearing for their own lives,
- members of the Convention turned on the Committee of Public Safety
Robespierre was arrested
- night of July 27, 1794
- next day he was executed
executions slowed down dramatically

d) Repression of the Society and Revolutionary Republican Women*

e) De-Christianization*

7. The Thermidorian Reaction

a) Establishment of the Directory

 revolution entered a third stage
- Moving away from the excesses of the Convention
moderates produced another constitution
- third since 1789
The Constitution of 1795
- set up a five – man Directory
- two – house legislature elected by male citizens of property
middle – class and professional people of the bourgeoisie were the dominant force during this stage of the French Revolution
The Directory held power from 1795 to 1799
a two – house parliament
- consisting of the Council of Elders of 250 members
- Council of 500
Executive authority was exercised by five Directors
- elected by the Council of Elders
- National Convention was dissolved on October 26, 1795
- Directory came into being
Weak but dictatorial, the Directory faced growing discontent
Corrupt leaders lined their own pockets but failed to solve pressing problems
- rising bread prices stirred hungry sans-culottes to riot
- Directory quickly suppressed
Another threat to the Directory was the revival of royalist feeling
- Many émigrés were returning to France
- being welcomed by devout Catholics
- resented measures that had been taken against the Church. 
election of 1797
- supporters of constitutional monarchy won the majority of seats in the legislature
discontent mounted, the Directory came increasingly to rely on the army for support
popular general Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the Directory
- November 9, 1799
- established a military dictatorship
Napoleon Bonaparte
- popular military hero
- won a series of brilliant victories against the Austrians in Italy
Napoleon’s seizure of power marked the end of the revolutionary decade
- begun in 1789
leaders of the French Revolution had failed to establish an orderly and workable system of government
enacted some enduring reforms
- worst abused of the Old Regime had been eliminated
- including royal absolutism, the privileges of the nobility and the higher clergy, and the remnants of manorialism. 
principles of freedom of religion and the equality of all citizens before the law had been introduced
number of other reforms had been established

b) Removal of the Sans-culottes from Political Life*

B. The Age of Napoleon and the Triumph of Romanticism

1. The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

 born in Corsica
- 1769
- French – ruled island in the Mediterranean
- family were minor nobles
- had little money
sent to France to be trained for a military career
- age nine
- entered a military school at Brienne France
became a student at the military academy in Paris
- 1783
- age 14
Napoleon was commissioned a lieutenant of artillery
- 1785
- age 16
revolution broke out
- one of its most ardent supporters
- ambitious 20 – year – old lieutenant
- eager to make a name for himself
Napoleon favored the Jacobins and republican rule. 
- found the conflicting ideas and personalities of the French Revolution confusing
wrote to his brother in 1793: ‘Since one must take sides, one might as well choose the side that is victorious, the side which devastates, loots, and burns.’
War of the First Coalition
- 1793
- plan developed by Napoleon helped the French recapture Toulon from the British
- naval base on the Mediterranean
went on to win several dazzling victories against the Austrians
- capturing most of northern Italy
- forcing Hapsburg emperor to make peace
Napoleon’s artillery dispersed a mob assaulting the National Convention
- October 1795
brought the young officer to the attention of the revolutionary leaders
Napoleon married Josephine de Beauharnais
- 1796
- widow six years older
- Her contacts with leading figures in the government of the directory helped advance her husband’s career
Hoping to disrupt British trade with India
- led a colorful expedition to Egypt in 1798
- The Egyptian campaign proved to be a disaster
- Napoleon managed to hide stories of the worst losses from his admirers in France
moved from victorious general to political leader
- 1799
- helped overthrow the weak Directory
- set up a three – man governing board known as the Consulate
Another constitution was drawn up
Napoleon soon took the title First Consul
had himself named consul for life
- 1802
At each step on his rise to power, Napoleon had held a plebiscite, or ballot in which voters say yes or no
- Each time, the French strongly supported him

2. The Consulate in France (1799-1804)

a) Suppressing Foreign Enemies and Domestic Opposition*

b) Concordat with the Roman Catholic Church

 Napoleon consolidated his power by strengthening the central government
- Order, security, and efficiency replaced liberty, equality, and fraternity as the slogans of the new regime
Napoleon backed off from some of the revolution’s social reforms
made peace with the Catholic Church
- Concordat of 1801
- kept the Church under state control
- recognized religious freedom for Catholics. 
Revolutionaries who opposed the Church denounced the agreement
- Catholics welcomed it
Napoleon won support across class lines
encouraged émigrés to return
- provided that they took an oath of loyalty

c) Napoleonic Administration

 Napoleon deprived the French people of political liberty and freedom of expression
- served to encourage anarchy
established a highly centralized administration
- provided the French people with an efficient and orderly government

d) Financial Reforms

 Napoleon reorganized and centralized the assessment and collection of taxes
- Eliminating corruption and waste
Various government bonds and other obligations that had fallen in value
- called in and paid
put the French government on a solid financial basis
controlled prices
encouraged new industry
built roads and canals
ensure well – trained officials and military officers
- set up a system of public schools under strict government control

e) Centralized Government

 increase the central government’s control of local affairs
- Napoleon appointed a prefect to administer each of the country’s eighty – three departments
- subprefect to administer each district
system of prefects and subprefects represented an important part of Napoleon’s effort to centralize authority in his government in Paris

f) The Napoleonic Code

 Under the Old Regime, the French legal system had been chaotic
- giving rise to widespread protests
National Convention had begun the task of unifying the legal system
- much remained to be done
- 1790s
Napoleon appointed a commission of legal experts to draft a new code of civil law
- 1800
- civil code went into effect in 1804
- renamed the Napoleonic Code in 1807
new law code
- popular called the Napoleonic Code
- embodied Enlightenment principles
- equality of all citizens before the law, religious toleration, and advancement based on merit
Napoleonic Code undid some reforms of the French Revolution
- Women lost most of their newly gained rights and could not exercise the rights of citizenship
- Male heads of households regained complete authority over their wives and children
- Napoleon valued order and authority over individual rights
legal reforms
- reaffirmed the revolutionary principle of the equality of all citizens before the law
- abolition of privileges based on birth
Individuals were permitted to pursue occupations of their choice
- employment in the service of the state would be based on ability rather than on social position or wealth
reaffirmed the right to property acquired during the revolution and the end of the manorial obligations of the peasants
principle of freedom of religion
interests of the state took precedence over the rights of individuals
- men were granted greater authority over their wives and children
- Penalties for political crimes were increased
Napoleon’s government had also enacted new codes of criminal and commercial law
- 1810

g) Establishing a Dynasty

 Napoleon had acquired enough power to assume the title Emperor of the French
- December 1804
invited the pope to preside over his coronation in Paris. 
- Napoleon re-enacted an ancient ceremony of coronation in which the pope consecrated him
- crowning of Charlemagne in 800 AD had symbolized the founding of a successor empire to Rome – the Holy Roman Empire
- papal sanction, a new empire was to take its place
During the ceremony, however, Napoleon took the crown from the pope’s hands and placed it on his own head
- Napoleon meant to show that he owned his throne to no one but himself
Napoleon I, Emperor of the French
- made the office hereditary
- established a court comparable to those of the Bourbon dynasty
divorced his first wife, Josephine
wed Marie Louise
- 1810
- niece of the Austrian Emperor
- member of the royal Hapsburg family
- by his marriage, Napoleon became the nephew – in – law of the deceased King Louis XVI
Napoleon also placed his relatives on various thrones
brother Joseph
- four years king of Naples
- later king of Spain
- sister Caroline succeeded Joseph as monarch of Naples
brother Louis
- king of Holland,
brother Jerome
- king of Westphalia
stepson became viceroy in the kingdom of Italy
uncle was elevated to cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church
Napoleon had restored absolute monarchy under a new form
- established monarchy under a new form
- established a new Bonaparte dynasty

3. The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)*

4. Napoleon’s Empire (1804 – 1814)

a) Conquering an Empire

 Napoleon furthered his reputation on the battlefield
- 1804 to 1814
- successfully faced down the combined forces of the greatest European powers
- took great risks and even suffered huge losses.
- ‘I grew up on the field of battle, and a man such as I am cares little for the life of a million men.’ 
Grand Empire reach its greatest extent
- 1810
Napoleon valued rapid movements
- made effective use of his large armies
- developed a new plan for each battle
- opposing generals could never anticipate what he would do next
enemies paid tribute to his leadership
- Napoleon’s presence on the battlefield, said one, was ‘worth 40,000 troops.’

(1) British Naval Supremacy

 Britain remained outside Napoleon’s European empire
Britain relied on its sea power to stop Napoleon’s drive to rule the continent
- only a small army
Napoleon prepared to invade England
- 1805
Battle of Trafalgar
- October 21
- fought off the south – west coast of Spain
- British admiral Horatio Nelson smashed the combined French and Spanish navies
British eliminated French naval power for the balance of the war
Napoleon had to suspend his plans to invade Great Britain

(2) Napoleonic Victories in Central Europe

 Napoleon created a vast Empire
- redrew the map of Europe
- annexed some areas to France, including the Netherlands, Belgium, and parts of Italy and Germany
abolished the tottering Holy Roman Empire
- created a 38 – member Confederation of the Rhine under French protection
cut Prussian territory in half
- turning part of old Poland into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw

(3) Treaty of Tilsit*

b) The Continental System

 Invasion ruled out, Napoleon struck at Britain’s lifeblood, its commerce
- waged economic warfare through the Continental System
- closed European ports to British goods
Britain responded with its own blockade of European ports.
both Britain and France seized neutral ships suspected of trading with the other side
- British attacks on American ships sparked anger in the United States
- eventually triggered the War of 1812
Napoleon’s Continental System failed to bring Britain to its knees
- British exports declined
- powerful navy kept open vital trade routes to the Americas and India
- trade restrictions created a scarcity of goods in Europe, sent prices soaring, and intensified resentment against French power

5. European Response to the Empire

a) German Nationalism and Prussian Reform

 French armies spread the ideas of the revolution across Europe
- backed liberal reforms in the lands they conquered
helped install revolutionary governments
- abolished titles of nobility, ended Church privileges, opened careers to men of talent, and ended serfdom and manorial dues
The Napoleonic Code was carried across Europe
French occupation sometimes brought economic benefits
- reducing trade barriers and stimulating industry
nationalism spurred French armies to success, it worked against them
Many Europeans who had welcomed the ideas of the French Revolution
- saw Napoleon and his armies as foreign oppressors
- resented the Continental System and Napoleon’s effort to impose French culture
nationalism unleashed revolts against France
- German states, leaders encouraged national loyalty among German – speaking people to counter French influence

b) The Wars of Liberation

(1) Spain

 Napoleon replaced the king of Spain with his own brother, Joseph Bonaparte
- 1808
introduced reforms that sought to undermine the Spanish Catholic Church
- many Spaniards remained loyal to their former king and devoted to the Church
Spanish resisted the invaders
- well – armed French forces responded with brutal repression
- French reaction further inflamed Spanish nationalism
- Efforts to drive out the French intensified
Spanish patriots conducted a campaign of guerrilla warfare
- Small bands of guerrillas ambushed French supply trains or troops before melting into the countryside
attacks kept large numbers of French soldiers tied down in Spain
- Napoleon needed them elsewhere
British sent an army under Arthur Wellesley, later the Duke of Wellington, to help the Spanish fight France

(2) Austria

 Spanish resistance encouraged Austria to resume hostilities against the French
Battle of Austerlitz
- 1805
- Napoleon had won a crushing victory against an Austro – Russian army of superior numbers
Austrians sought revenge
- 1809
battle of Wagram
- Napoleon triumphed
peace agreement that followed
- Austria surrendered lands populated by more than three million subjects
Napoleon married the Austrian princes Marie Louise
- 1810
- after divorcing his wife Josephine
- marring the daughter of Hapsburg emperor
- he and his heirs could claim kinship with the royalty with Europe

c) The Invasion of Russia

 Napoleon’s alliance with Austrian royal family was especially disturbing to Czar Alexander I of Russia
Russians were also unhappy with the economic effects of Napoleon’s Continental System
another cause of concern was that Napoleon had enlarged the Grand Duchy of Warsaw
- bordered Russia on the west
- led the czar to withdraw Russia from the Continental System
- Napoleon responded to the czar’s action by assembling his Grand Army
more than 610,000 soldiers from France and other countries invaded Russia
- late June 1812
Russians retreated eastward
- avoid battles with Napoleon
- burning crops and villages as they went
‘scorched earth’ policy
- left the French hungry and cold as winter came. 
French had advanced some 300 miles
- mid – August
- reaching Smolensk without having fought any major battles
Grand Army entered Moscow
- September 14
- Russians had abandoned the city, leaving it in flames
Napoleon remained in Moscow for five weeks
- realized, though, that he was not able to feed and supply his army through the long Russian winter
- hoping that Alexander I would admit defeat
- tsar refused to do so
turned homeward
- October
1,000 miles retreat from Moscow turned into a desperate battle for survival
- Russian attacks and the brutal Russian winter took a terrible toil
Only about 10,000 soldiers of the once – proud Grand Army survived
- 400,000 died of battle wounds, starvation or exposure
- 100,000 were taken prisoner
Napoleon rushed to Paris to raise a new force to defend France
- reputation for success had been shattered

d) European Coalition

 disaster in Russia brought a new alliance
- Russia, Britain, Austria, and Prussia against a weakened France
defeated Napoleon in the Battle of Nations at Leipzig
- 1813

(1) Exile and Return

 next year, Napoleon abdicated
- stepped down from power
victors exiled him to Elba
- island in the Mediterranean
recognized Louis XVIII as king of France
- brother of Louis XVI
restoration of Louis XVIII did not go smoothly. 
- Bourbon king agreed to accept the Napoleonic Code
- honor the land settlements made during the revolution
- many émigrés rushed back to France bent on revenge
- economic depression and the fear of a return to the old regime helped rekindle loyalty to Napoleon
victorious allies gathered in Vienna for a general peace conference
- Napoleon escaped his island exile
- returned to France
- Soldiers flocked to his banner
citizens cheered Napoleon’s advance
- Louis XVIII fled
emperor of the French entered Paris in triumph
- March 1815

(2) Battle of Waterloo

 Napoleon’s triumph was short – lived
- star soared for only 100 days
- allies reassembled their forces
opposing armies met near the town of Waterloo in Belgium
- June 18, 1815
British forces under the Duke of Wellington & Prussian army commanded by General Blücher
- crushed the French in an agonizing day – long battle
Napoleon was forced to abdicate
- go into exile on St. Helena
- lonely island in the South Atlantic
- he would not return

e) Legacy of Napoleon

 Napoleon died in 1821
- legend lived on in France and around the world
The Napoleonic Code consolidated many changes of the revolution
The France of Napoleon was centralized state with a constitution
- Elections were held with expanded, though limited, suffrage
- Many more citizens had rights to property and access to education than under the old regime
French citizens lost many rights promised so fervently by republicans during the Convention
Napoleon’s conquests spread the ideas of the revolution
- failed to make Europe into a French empire
- sparked nationalist feeling across Europe
abolition of the Holy Roman Empire
- eventually help in creating a new Germany. 
Napoleon also had a dramatic impact across the Atlantic
- decision to sell France’s vast Louisiana Territory to the American government doubled the size of the United States and ushered in an age of American expansion
- 1803

6. The Congress of Vienna and the European Settlement

 After Waterloo, diplomats and heads of state again sat down at the Congress of Vienna
- faced the monumental task of restoring stability and order in Europe after years of revolution and war

a) Gathering of Leaders

 The Congress met for 10 months
- September 1814 to June 1815
brilliant gathering of European leaders
- Diplomats and royalty dined and danced
- attended concerts and ballets
- enjoyed parties arranged by their host, Emperor Francis I of Austria
entertainment kept thousands of minor players busy
- real work fell to Prince Clemens von Matternich of Austria, Czar Alexander I of Russia, and Lord Robert Castlereagh of Britain
- Defeated France was represented by Prince Charles Maurice de Talleyrand

b) Goals of the Congress

 chief goal of the Vienna decision makers was to create a lasting peace
- establishing a balance of power
- protecting the system of monarchy
- Each of the leaders also pursued his own goals. 
Matternich
- dominant figure at the Congress
- wanted to restore the status quo of 1792
Alexander I
- urged a ‘holy alliance’ of Christian monarchs to suppress future revolutions
Lord Castlereagh
- determined to prevent a revival of French military power
aged diplomat Talleyrand
- played the other leaders against one another to get defeated France accepted as an equal partner

c) Balance of Power

 peacemakers also redrew the map of Europe
contain French ambitions
- ringed France with strong countries
north
- added Belgium and Luxemburg to Holland
- to create the kingdom of the Netherlands
eastward
- gave Prussia lands along the Rhine River
- also allowed Austria to reassert control over northern Italy
policy of containment proved fairly successful in maintaining the peace

d) Restoration of Monarchs

 To turn back the clock to 1792
- architects of the peace promoted the principle of legitimacy
- restoring hereditary monarchies that the French Revolution or Napoleon had unseated
Even before the Congress began, they had put Louis XVIII on the French throne
- restored ‘legitimate’ monarchs in Portugal, Spain, and the Italian states

e) Problems of the Peace for Quadruple Alliance

 Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain extended their wartime alliance into the postwar era
- Quadruple Alliance
- four nations pledged to act together to maintain the balance of power
- suppress revolutionary uprisings
Vienna statesmen achieved their immediate goals,
- failed to foresee how powerful new forces such as nationalism would shake the foundations of Europe
ideals of the French Revolution were not destroyed at Vienna
- French Revolution would inspire people in Europe and Latin America to seek equality and liberty
- spirit of nationalism ignited by Napoleon also remained a powerful force
redrew nationals boundaries without any concern for national cultures
created a loosely organized German Confederation
- Austria as its official head
- many Germans who had battled Napoleon were already dreaming of a strong, united German nation. 
- dream would not come true for more than 50 years,
- story of German unification began in this period
Congress created a framework for peace
- decisions influenced European politics for the next 100 years
- Europe would not see war on a Napoleonic scale until 1914

7. The Romantic Movement

 romanticism shaped western literature and arts
- 1750 to 1850
- glorified nature
- sought to excite strong emotions in their audiences
rebelled against the Enlightenment
- Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason and progress
- Enlightenment’s optimistic belief in the perfectibility of human beings and human society
rebelled against the formalism of eighteenth – century classicism
- rigid rules that classicism applied to the creative process
romantics emphasized
feelings and emotions
faith and intuition
imagination and spontaneity
continued to emphasize the importance and value of the individual and to promote individual freedom
reverence for the past
- awareness of the emotional ties which joined the present with the past and gave a sense of order and stability to society and its institutions
fascination for the culture of the Middle Ages
- age of faith
- contrast to the eighteenth century age of reason

 a) Music

 Ludwig van Beethoven
- German composer
- combines classical forms with a stirring range of sound
- first composer to take full advantage of the broad range of instruments in the modern orchestra
- produced nine symphonies
- five piano concertos
- a violin concerto
- an opera
- two masses
- dozens of shorter pieces
Frederic Chopin
- used Polish peasant dances to convey the sorrows and joys of people living under foreign occupation

 b) Art

 J.M.W. Turner
- landscape painters
- capture the beauty and power of nature
- bold brush strokes and colors
- showed tiny human figures struggling against sea and storm
Eugéne Delacroix
- dramatic action
- Liberty Leading the People
- Goddess of Liberty carries the revolutionary tricolor as French citizens rally to the cause

8. Romantic Questioning of the Supremacy of Reason*

a) Rousseau and Education*

b) Kant and Reason*

9. Romantic Literature*

a) English Romantic Writers*

(1) Wordsworth*

(2) Lord Byron*

(3) Mary Godwin Shelley*

b) The German Romantic Writers*

(1) Goethe*

10. Romantic Art*

a) The Cult of the Middle Ages and Neo-Gothicism*

b) Nature and the Sublime*

11. Religion in the Romantic Period*

a) Methodism*

b) New Directions in Continental Religion*

12. Romantic Views of Nationalism and History*

a) Herder and Culture*

b) Hegel and History*

c) Islam, the Middle East and Romanticism*

 

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