Martin Luther and German Reformation study guide summary

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Martin Luther and German Reformation study guide summary

Role of Religion

A. Age of Reformation

1. Martin Luther & German Reformation

a) Society and Religion*

(1) Social and Political Conflict*

(2) Popular Religious Movements & Criticism of the Church*

(a) Lay Control over Religious Life*

b) Attack on Indulgences

Church had become increasingly caught up in worldly affairs
- late Middle Ages
- Popes competed with Italian princes for political power
- fought long wars to protect the Papal States against invasions by secular rulers
- maintained a lavish lifestyle
- patrons of the arts
- hired painters and sculptors to beautify churches
Church increased fees for services such as marriages and baptisms
- finance such projects
- Some clergy also promoted the sale of indulgences.
indulgence was a lessening of the time a soul would have to spend in purgatory
- place where souls too impure to enter heaven atoned for sins committed during their lifetimes
Church had granted indulgences only for good deeds, such as going on a crusade
- Middle Ages
indulgences could also be obtained in exchange for money gifts to the Church
- late 1400s
Many Christians protested such practices
- especially in northern Europe
Christian humanists such as Erasmus urged a return to the simple ways of the early Christian Church
- stressed Bible study
- rejected what they saw as the worldliness of the Church
protests against Church abuses erupted into a full – scale revolt
- 1517

(1) The 95 Theses

Pope Leo X was trying to raise money to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome
- pope sold church positions to his friends
- authorized sales of indulgences
priest named Johann Tetzel set up a pulpit on the outskirts of Wittenberg
- 1517
- offered indulgences to any Christian who contributed money for the rebuilding of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome
- claimed that purchase of these indulgences would assure entry into heaven not only for the purchasers but for their dead relatives as well
- went so far as to promise peasants that indulgences would relieve them of guilt for future sins
To Luther, Tenzel’s actions were the final outrage
- drew up 95 theses, or arguments, against indulgences
argued that indulgences had no basis in the Bible
pope had no authority to release souls from purgatory
Christians could be saved only through faith
posted his list on the door of Wittenberg’s All Saints Church
- accordance with the custom of the time

(2) Luther’s Teachings

rejected the Church doctrine that good deeds were necessary for salvation
- Luther argued that salvation was achieved through faith alone
a person could be made just, or good, simply by faith in God’s mercy and love
- Luther’s idea became known as justification by faith
Luther upheld the Bible as the sole source of religious truth
- denied other authorities, such as Church councils or the pope
Luther rejected the idea that priests and the Church hierarchy had special powers
- talked of a ‘priesthood of all believers’
- All Christians had equal access to God through faith and the Bible
Luther wanted to change other church practices
- rejected five of the seven sacraments because the Bible did not mention them
- banned indulgences, confession, pilgrimages, and prayers to saints
- simplified the elaborate ritual of the mass and instead emphasized the sermon
- permitted the clergy to marry
adopted by the Lutheran churches that were set up by Luther’s followers

(3) Luther Versus the Church

Almost overnight, copies of Luther’s 95 theses were printed and distributed across Europe
- stirred furious debate
Church called on Luther to recant
- give up his views
- Luther refused
developed even more radical new doctrines
- urging Christians to reject the authority of Rome.
- must be reformed by secular authorities
- Church would not reform itself
Pope Leo X responded to the decline in indulgences sales
- sending envoys to Germany to persuade Luther to withdraw his criticisms
- Luther refused
pope formally condemned Luther and banned his works
- 1520
Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther from the Church
- 1521
new Holy Roman emperor, Charles V, summoned Luther to the diet, or assembly of German princes, at Worms
- Diet at Worms
Luther went, expecting to defend his writings.
- emperor simply ordered him to give them up
Charles declared Luther an outlaw
- making it a crime for anyone in the empire to give him food or shelter
Luther had many powerful supporters
- Prince Frederick of Saxony
- hid him at a castle in Wartburg
- remained in hiding for nearly a year
thousands hailed him as a hero
- accepted his teachings and, following his lead, renounced the authority of the pope
Luther translate the New Testament into German
- in hiding
- Earlier German translations of the Bible were so rare and costly
- few people had them
- Luther’s more affordable translation
- most people could now read the Bible

c) Charles V and the Hapsburg Empire

Spain had shaken off the feudal past and emerged as the first modern European power
- 1500s
- Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand
Spain had expelled the last Muslim rulers
- enforced religious unity
Isabella financed Columbus’ voyage across the Atlantic
- 1492
- leading to the Spanish conquest of the Americas

(1) Wearing Two Crowns

Charles V, grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, inherited a huge empire
- 1519
- inherited the crown of Spain
- also the heir of the Austrian Hapsburgs
- The sprawling Hapsburg empire included the Holy Roman Empire and the Netherlands
Ruling two empires involved Charles in constant warfare
devout Catholic
- fought to suppress the Protestant movement in the German states
years of religious warfare
- Charles was forced to allow the German princes to choose their own religions
greatest foe was the Ottoman empire
- Suleiman & Ottoman forces advanced across central Europe to the walls of Vienna, Austria
- Austria held firm
- Ottomans occupied much of Hungary
- Ottoman naval forces also challenged Spanish power in the Mediterranean

(2) An Empire Divided

Charles V gave up his titles
- entered a monastery
- 1556
divided his empire
leaving the Hapsburg lands in central Europe to his brother Ferdinand
- Holy Roman emperor
gave Spain, the Netherlands, southern Italy, and Spain’s overseas empire to his 29 – year – old son Philip

d) War with France & Turks*

e) Spread of Reformation

(1) Widespread Support

northern Germany and Scandinavia
new printing presses spread Luther’s writings
fiery preachers denounced Church abuses
Lutherans were using a new name, Protestant
- 1530
- ‘protested’ papal authority
Many clergy saw Luther’s reforms as the answer to Church corruption
number of German princes embraced Lutheran beliefs for more selfish reasons
- Lutheranism as a way to throw off the rule of both the church and the Holy Roman emperor
- welcomed a chance to seize Church property in their territory
other Germans supported Luther because of feelings of national loyalty
- tired of German money going to support churches and clergy in Italy

(2) The Peasants’ Revolt

Many peasants also took up Luther’s banner
- hoped to gain his support for social and economic change
Peasants’ Revolt erupted across Germany
- 1524
rebels called for an end to serfdom
- demanded other changes in their harsh lives
Luther, however, strongly favored social order and respect for political authority
Peasants’ Revolt grew more violent
- Luther denounced it
nobles suppressed the rebellion
- killing tens of thousands of people
- leaving thousands more homeless

2. Other Reformists

a) Zwingli & Swiss Reformation

Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin presented further challenges to the Catholic Church
Zwingli
- priest and an admirer of Erasmus
- lived in the Swiss city of Zurich
- lived from 1484 to 1531
led the Protestant movement in Switzerland
rejected elaborate church rituals
- such as purgatory and the sale of indulgences
stressed the importance of the Bible
stressed salvation by faith alone

(1) Reformation in Zurich

Unlike Luther, Zwingli wanted to break completely from Catholic tradition
- wanted to establish a theocracy in the Swiss city of Zurich
- church – run state
Zwingli had achieved this goal
- 1525

(2) The Marburg Colloquy*

(3) Swiss Civil Wars

war broke out over Protestant missionary activity in the Catholic areas of Switzerland
- 1531
- Zwingli and his force of followers were defeated by an army of Catholics

b) Anabaptists & Radical Protestants

hundreds of new Protestant sects sprang up
- sects often had ideas that were even more radical than those of Luther and Calvin
Anabaptists
rejected infant baptism
- Infants are too young to understand what it means to accept the Christian faith
Only adults should receive the sacrament of baptism
Few Anabaptist sects sought radical social change as well.
- wanted to abolish private property
- sought to speed up the coming of God’s day of judgment by violent means

(1) Conrad Grebel & the Swiss Brethren*

(2) The Anabaptist Reign in Münster

radical Anabaptists took over the city of Munster in Germany
- even Luther advised his supporters to join Catholics in suppressing the threat to the traditional order
Most Anabaptists were peaceful
called for religious toleration
separation of church and state
Baptists, Quakers, Mennonites, and Amish all trace their ancestry to the Anabaptists

(3) Spiritualists*

(4) Antitrinitarians*

c) John Calvin & Genevan Reformation

(1) Teachings

Calvin was born in France
- trained as a priest and lawyer
Calvin published the Institutes of the Christian Religion
- 1536
- read by Protestants everywhere,
- set forth his religious beliefs
- provided advice on how to organize and run a Protestant church
believed that salvation was gained through faith alone
regarded the Bible as the only source of religious truth
preached predestination
- God had long ago determined who would gain salvation
world was divided into two kinds of people
- saints and sinners
- Calvinists tried to live like saints
- believing that only those who were saved could live truly Christian lives

(2) Calvin’s Geneva

Calvin tried to turn the city of Geneva into a model religious community
- began this project in 1541
- establishing the Consistory
- church council of 12 elders that was given the power to control almost every aspect of people’s daily lives
All citizens were required to attend Reformed church services several times each week
Calvin believed in religious education for girls as well as for boys
- Women, he felt, should read the Bible – in private
- Calvin also allowed women to sing in church
- practice that many church leaders criticized
Calvinists stressed hard work, discipline, thrift, honesty, and morality
Calvin closed theaters and frowned on elaborate dress
Consistory inspected homes annually to make sure that no one was disobeying the laws
- forbade fighting, swearing, drunkenness, gambling, card playing, and dancing
dispensed harsh punishments to those who disobeyed
atmosphere earned Geneva the title ‘City of God’
- attracted reformers from all over Europe

(3) Spread of Calvinism

Reformers from all over Europe visited Geneva
- returned home to spread Calvin’s ideas
Calvinism had taken root in Germany, France, the Netherlands, England, and Scotland
- late 1500s
new challenge to the Roman Catholic Church set off bloody wars of religion across Europe
Germany
- Calvinists faced opposition not only from Catholics, but from Lutherans as well
France
- wars raged between French Calvinists, called Huguenots, and Catholics
Netherlands
- Calvinists organized the Dutch Reformed Church.
- ‘field preachers’ gave sermons in the countryside, away from the eyes of town authorities
- avoid persecution
Scotland
- Calvinist preacher named John Knox led a religious rebellion
- Scottish Protestants overthrew their Catholic queen.
- set up the Scottish Presbyterian Church

3. Political Consolidation of Lutheran Reformation*

a) Diet of Augsburg*

b) Expansion of the Reformation*

c) Reaction Against Protestants*

d) Peace of Augsburg*

4. English Reformation

some English clergy were toying with Protestant ideas
- 1520s
break with the Catholic Church was the work not of religious leaders but of King Henry VIII
Henry wanted to end papal control over the English church
- political reasons

a) Seeking an Annulment

Henry VIII stood firmly against the Protestant revolt
- pope even awarded him the title ‘Defender of the Faith’ for a pamphlet that he wrote denouncing Luther
an issue arose that set Henry at odds with the Church
- 1527
After 18 years of marriage
- Henry and his Spanish wife, Catherine of Aragon, had one surviving child
- Mary Tudor
Henry felt that England’s stability depended on his having a male heir
wanted to marry Anne Boleyn
- hoping that she would bear him a son
Catholic law does not permit divorce
- asked the pope to annul, or cancel, his marriage
- Popes had annulled royal marriages before
- pope refused
- did not want to offend the Holy Roman emperor Charles V, Catherine’s nephew

b) Break with Rome

Henry was furious
Spurred on by his advisers
- many of whom leaned toward Protestant teachings
decided to take over the English church
- had a series of laws passed. They
- took the English church from the pope’s control
- placed it under Henry’s rule
Act of Supremacy
- 1534
- made Henry ‘the only supreme head on Earth of the Church of England.’
Many local Catholics refused to accept the Act of Supremacy
- executed for treason
- including Sir Thomas More, the great English humanist.
- More was later canonized, or recognized as a saint, by the Catholic Church
Henry appointed Thomas Cranmer archbishop
- Cranmer annulled the king’s marriage
Henry then wed Anne Boleyn
- bore him a second daughter, Elizabeth
Henry married four more times but had only one son, Edward

c) The Church of England

royal officials investigated English convents and monasteries
- 1536 – 1540
Claiming that they were centers of immortality
- Henry ordered them closed
- Confiscated their lands and wealth
- granted some of these lands to nobles and other high – ranking citizens
- secured their support for the Anglican Church
- new Church of England was called
Henry was not a religious radical
- rejected most Protestant doctrines

d) Religious Turmoil

Henry died in 1547
- 10 – year – old son, Edward VI, inherited the throne
young king’s advisers were devout Protestants
Parliament passed new laws that brought the Protestant reforms to England
Thomas Cranmer drew up the Book of Common Prayer.
- imposed a moderate form of Protestant service
- keeping many Catholic doctrines
- changes sparked uprisings that were harshly suppressed
Edward died in his teens
- half – sister, Mary Tudor, became queen
- determined to return England to the Catholic faith
Queen Mary
- hundreds of English Protestants were burned at the stake

e) The Elizabethan Settlement

Mary’s death in 1558
- throne passed to Elizabeth
Elizabeth had survived court intrigues
- including the religious swings under Edward and Mary
Elizabeth had to determine the future of the Church of England
- slowly enforced a series of reforms that later were called the Elizabethan settlement
queen’s policies were a compromise between Protestant and Catholic practices
Church of England preserved much Catholic ceremony and ritual
- kept the hierarchy of bishops and archbishops
- queen reaffirmed that the monarch was the head of the Anglican Church
Elizabeth restored a version of the Book of Common Prayer
- accepted moderated Protestant doctrine
- allowed English to replace Latin in church services

5. Catholic Reformation & Counter – Reformation

Catholic monarchs and the Catholic Church fought back against the Protestant challenge
- took steps to reform the Church and to restore its spiritual leadership of the Christian world
Protestant Reformation swept across northern Europe
vigorous reform movement took hold within the Catholic Church.
- Catholic Reformation
- leader of this movement was Pope Paul III
set out to revive the moral authority of the Church and roll back the Protestant tide
- 1530s - 1540s
appointed reformers to key posts
- end corruption within the papacy itself

a) Council of Trent

pope called the Council of Trent
- 1545
- establish the direction that reform should take
met off and on for almost 20 years
council reaffirmed traditional Catholic views
- Salvation comes through faith and good works
- The Bible, while a major source of religious truth, is not the only source
council also took steps to end abuses in the Church
- provided stiff penalties for worldliness and corruption among the clergy
established schools to create a better – educated clergy
- could challenge Protestant teachings

b) The Inquisition

Pope Paul strengthened the Inquisition
Inquisition was a Church court set up during the Middle Ages
used secret testimony, torture, and execution to root out heresy
prepared the Index of Forbidden Books
- list of works considered too immoral or irreligious for Catholics to read
- included Books by Luther and Calvin

c) Ignatius of Loyola

the pope recognized a new religious order, the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits
- 1540
- Founded by Ignatius of Loyola
Jesuit order was determined to combat heresy and spread the Catholic faith
Ignatius was a Spanish knight raised in the crusading tradition
- his leg was shattered in battle
- found comfort reading about saints who had overcome mental and physical torture
- Vowing to become a ‘soldier of God’
Ignatius drew up a strict program for the Jesuits
- included spiritual and moral discipline
- rigorous religious training
- absolute obedience to the Church
Jesuits became advisers to Catholic rulers
- helping them combat heresy in their lands
set up schools that taught humanist and Catholic beliefs
- enforced discipline and obedience
Daring Jesuits slipped into Protestant lands in disguise
- minister to the spiritual needs of Catholics
Jesuit missionaries spread their Catholic faith to distant lands
- including Asia, Africa and Americas

d) Teresa of Avila

Catholic Reformation spread
- many Catholics experienced renewed feelings of intense faith
Teresa of Avila symbolized this renewal
- Born into a wealthy Spanish family
- entered a convent in her youth
- Finding convent routine not strict enough
set up her own order of nuns
- lived in isolation
- eating and sleeping very little
- dedicating themselves to prayer and meditation
Impressed by her spiritual life,
- superiors in the Church asked Teresa to reorganize and reform convents and monasteries throughout Spain
Teresa was widely honored for her work
- Church canonized her
- after her death
- mystical writings rank among the most important Christian texts of her time

e) Results

By 1600
- Rome was a far more devout city than it had been 100 years earlier
Across Catholic Europe, piety and charity flourished
reforms did slow the Protestant tide
- even returned some areas to the Catholic Church
Europe remained divided into a Catholic south and a Protestant north

6. Widespread Persecution

Both Catholics and Protestants fostered intolerance
- Catholic mobs attacked and killed Protestants
- Protestants killed Catholic priests and wrecked Catholic churches.
- Both Catholics and Protestants persecuted radical sects like the Anabaptists

a) Witch Hunts

religious fervor of the times contributed to a wave of witch hunting
usually women were accused o being witches, or agents of the devil
- some men faced similar attacks
tens of thousands of women and men died as victims of witch hunts
- 1450 – 1750
Scholars have offered various reasons for this persecution.
- most people believed in magic and spirits
- saw a close link between magic and heresy
people often look for scapegoats on whom they can blame their problems
- People accused of witchcraft were often social outcasts
- beggars, poor widows, midwives blamed for infant death, or herbalists whose potions were seen as gifts form the devil

b) Jews and the Reformation

Reformation brought hard times to Europe’s Jews
early Renaissance had been a time of relative prosperity.
- Unlike Spain, which had expelled its Jews in 1492, Italy allowed Jews to remain
Some followed the traditional trades they had been restricted to in medieval times
- goldsmiths, artists, traders, and moneylenders
Others expanded into medicine, law, government, and business
pressure remained strong on Jews to convert
Venice ordered Jews to live in a separate quarter of the city
- 1516
- became known as a ghetto
- Other Italian cities also forced Jews into walled ghettos.
Luther hoped that Jews would be converted to his teachings
- when they did not convert, he called for them to be expelled from Christian lands and for their synagogues and books to be burned
- some German princes did expel Jews
- Others confined Jews to ghettos
- requiring them to wear a yellow badge if they traveled outside
Pope Paul IV placed added restrictions on Jews
- 1550s
- Emperor Charles V, who supported toleration of Jews in the Holy Roman Empire, banned them from Spanish colonies in the Americas
many Jews migrated to Poland – Lithuania and to parts of the Ottoman empire
- After 1550
- where they were permitted to prosper
Dutch Calvinists allowed Jewish families who were driven out of Portugal and Spain to settle in the Netherlands

7. Social Significance & Effects*

a) Revolution in Religious Practices & Institutions*

(1) Religion in 15th Century Life*

(2) Religion in 16th Century Life*

b) Reformation & Education*

c) Reformation & Changing Role of Women*

d) Family Life*

(1) Later Marriages*

(2) Arranged Marriages*

(3) Family Size*

(4) Birth Control*

(5) Wet Nursing*

(6) Loving Families*

B. Age of Religious Wars

1. Renewed Religious Struggle*

2. The French Wars of Religion

religious wars between Huguenots (French Protestants) and the Catholic majority tore France apart
- 1560 - 1590s
- Leaders on both sides used the strife to further their own ambitions

a) Appeal of Calvinism*

b) Catherine de Médicis and the Guises

(1) The Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye*

(2) The Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

St. Bartholomew’s Day
- August 24, 1572
Huguenot and Catholic nobles gathered to celebrate a royal wedding
- violence erupted that led to the massacre of 3,000 Huguenots
thousands more were slaughtered
- next few days
symbolized the complete breakdown of order in France

(3) Protestant Resistance Theory*

c) Henry of Navarre & Edict of Nantes

Huguenot prince inherited the French throne as Henry IV
- 1589
became Catholic
- Knowing that a Protestant would face severe problems ruling a largely Catholic land
issued the Edict of Nantes
- To protect Protestants
- 1598
- granted the Huguenots religious toleration
- let them fortify their own towns and cities
Henry IV set out to heal his shattered land
- the government reached into every area of French life
- Royal officials administered justice, improved roads, built bridges, and revived agriculture
Henry IV laid the foundations for royal absolutism
- building the royal bureaucracy
- reducing the influence of nobles

3. Imperial Spain & Philip II

a) Unified Power

King Philip II was hard – working, devout, and ambitious
- 42 – year reign
- sought to expand Spanish influence
- strengthen the Catholic Church
- make his own power absolute
made Spain the foremost power in Europe
- silver from the Americas
Philip devoted much time to government work
- seldom hunted, never jousted, and lived as sparsely as a monk
Philip further centralized royal power
- making every part of the government responsible to him
- reigned as an absolute monarch
Philip asserted that he ruled by divine right
- believed that his authority to rule came directly from God
Philip II faced many difficulties in ruling Spain
Spanish kingdoms had united
- Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella of Castile
- 1469
uniform system of government for the entire country, however, had not been set up
Separate laws and local authorities remained in place
- ways of Castile eventually came to dominate Spanish life
Castile had more territory, people, and wealth than any other part of Spain
- 1500s
Philip II made Castile the center of Spain and the empire.
- Madrid, located in Castile, became the capital
isolated, somber palace outside Madrid reflected the king’s character
- Known as the Escorial
- served as a church, a residence, and a tomb for members for the royal family
Castilian, or literary, form of Spanish was spoken at the royal court
Most of Philip’s advisers came from Castile
Trade from the overseas empire was controlled by the Castilian city of Seville
- Castilian merchants benefited most from trade
Leaders in Aragon and other Spanish provinces resented the dominance of Castile
Aragon revolted
- 1590s
- revolt was put down
- discontent continued into the 1600s

b) Divine Right and Religious Policy

Philip saw himself as the guardian of the Roman Catholic Church
- Partly as a result of the concept of divine right
- enforced religious unity
- turned the Inquisition against Protestants and other people thought to be heretics
Philip had to deal with a number of troubling religious issues in his European domains
concerned about the loyalty of large religious minorities in Spain
- minorities included Protestants, the Marranos (Jews who had converted to Christianity), and the Moriscos (Muslims who had become Christians)
Philip supported the Inquisition’s efforts to uproot the heresies believed to exist among these groups
personally attended several autos da fé
- elaborate public rituals of sentencing usually followed by executions
Inquisition was so thorough that Protestantism never took hold in Spain
Led to a revolt by the Moriscos in 1560
- revolt was brutally crushed
Moriscos were expelled from the country
- 1609

c) Pillars of Spanish Power*

(1) New World Riches*

(2) Increased Population*

(3) Efficient Bureaucracy & Military*

(4) Supremacy in the Mediterranean

Philip extended his crusading zeal into the eastern Mediterranean
defeated the Ottoman Turks
- 1571
- naval battle at Lepanto off the coast of Greece
Spain and its Italian allies soundly defeated an Ottoman fleet in the Mediterranean
Christians hailed this as a great victory
- Ottoman empire remained a major power in the Mediterranean region

d) The Revolt in the Netherlands

Philip battled Protestant rebels in the Netherlands
- last half of his reign
region included 17 provinces
- Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg
- richest part of Philip’s efforts to crush their faith.
Protestants and Catholics alike opposed high taxes and autocratic Spanish rule
- threatened local traditions of self – government
riots against the Inquisition sparked a general uprising in the Netherlands
- 1560s
- Savage fighting raged for decades
England gave support to the Dutch and to the English ‘sea dogs’
- raided Spanish ships in their ports
the northern, largely Protestant provinces declared their independence from Spain
- became known as the Dutch Netherlands
- 1581
did not gain official recognition, however, until 1648
southern, mostly Catholic provinces of the Netherlands remained part of the Spanish empire

(1) Cardinal Granvelle*

(2) The Compromise*

(3) The Duke of Alba*

(4) Resistance & Unification*

(5) The Pacification of Ghent*

(6) The Union of Arras & the Union of Utrecht*

(7) Netherlands Independence*

4. England & Spain

a) The Tudors

(1) Henry VII

England was ruled by the Tudor dynasty
- 1485 – 1603
Tudors believed in divine right
- recognized the value of good relations with Parliament
Henry VII became king after the Wars of the Roses
- 1485
- first Tudor monarch
- disarm his rivals
- increase the prestige of his family
Most of Henry’s close adviser came from the gentry and merchant classes
- Titles were given to these officials
- formed a new aristocracy dependent on the king
helped rebuild England’s commercial prosperity
encouraged the expansion of foreign policy
- avoided war, using diplomacy and the arrangement of suitable royal marriages to strengthen England’s interests abroad

(2) Henry VIII

Henry VIII, son of Henry VII
- second Tudor to rule
- most powerful of all Tudor monarchs
Henry VIII fought wars on the European continent
- began to make England a great naval power
constant need for money also led Henry to consult Parliament frequently
inherited a bulging treasury
- quickly used up his funds fighting overseas wars.
levy new taxes
- king had to seek the approval of Parliament.
- Members of Parliament tended to vote as Henry’s agents instructed
- became accustomed to being consulted on important matters

b) Edward VI and Mary I

Henry VIII’s death in 1547
Edward VI
- Henry’s son and successor
- only 9 years old hen he became king
- died in 1553 after a short reign
Protestant nobles then plotted to prevent Edward’s Catholic half sister, Mary, from becoming queen
- English people, however, supported Mary’s claim to the Tudor throne
Mary’s Catholic policies soon offended the English
Mary married Philip II of Spain
- 1554
restored Catholicism
- had about 300 Protestants burned at the stake for heresy.
Mary involved England in a war with France
- England lost the port of Calais
- final foothold on the European continent
Many English people feared that England would be controlled by Spain
Mary died childless, and the throne then passed to her Protestant half sister, Elizabeth

c) Elizabeth

Elizabeth I became queen
- 1558
- 25 years old
- shrewd, highly educated and had a forceful personality
- With a sharp tongue she asserted her iron will
- causing sparks to fly in exchanges with Parliament.
- earned the loyalty and confidence of her subjects
Elizabeth stayed at the homes of nobles
- entertained her with banquets, parades, and dances
Elizabeth both consulted and controlled Parliament
- advisers conveyed the queen’s wishes to Parliament and forbade discussion of certain subjects
- such as foreign policy or the queen’s marriage

(1) Marriage

People fully expected that Elizabeth would marry
- her husband would rule
common attitude of the time was that only men were fit to rule
- government matters were beyond a woman’s ability
Elizabeth, however, was slow in seeking a husband
- learned from the lesson of her sister Mary: to marry a foreign prince would endanger England
- marrying an Englishman would cause jealousies among the English nobility
- Elizabeth refused to give up her powers as monarch for the sake of marriage

(2) Court and Government

assisted by a council of nobles
- they drafted proclamations
- handled foreign relations
- supervised such maters as the administration of justice and the regulation of prices and wages.
- assisted by small staffs of professional but poorly paid bureaucrats
Parliament did not have the power to initiate legislation
enforcing the queen’s law was performed by unpaid respected community members known as justices of the peace
- Most justices belonged to the rural landowning classes
- knew both the law and local conditions
- maintained peace
- collected taxes
- kept the government informed of local problems
- voluntary participation in support of the government was a key to its success

(3) Social and Economic Policy

believed in the importance of social rank
English society was led by the queen and her court
- late 1500s
Next was prominent nobles from the great landed families
middle group of gentry, or lesser nobles, merchants, lawyers, and clergy
- provided the source of Tudor strength and stability.
lowest social rank was comprised of yeomen
- farmers with small landholdings, and laborers
Government laws and policies closely regulated the lives of the common people
The Statute of Apprentices of 1563
- declared work to be a social and moral duty
- required people to live and work where they were born
- controlled the movement of labor
- fixed wages
- regulated apprenticeships
The Poor Laws of 1597 and 1601
- made local areas responsible for their own homeless and unemployed
- included means to raise money for charity
- to provide work for vagabonds
Elizabeth inherited a monarchy that was badly in debt
Royal revenues barely covered annual expenses
- rents of royal land
- fines in court cases
- duties on imports
queen, however, spent lavishly on court ceremonies
- show the power and dignity of the monarchy
- other matters, she showed the greatest financial restraint, leading many to call her a ‘pinchpenny.’
raise funds without relying on Parliament
- Elizabeth sold off royal lands, offices, licenses, monopolies, and the right to collect customs
- helped but could not solve the problem
England faced the costs of war and mounting inflation
- forced to turn to Parliament for funds.
England remained badly in debt
- When she ended her reign

(4) Catholic & Protestant Extremists*

(5) Deterioration of Relations with Spain*

(6) Mary, Queen of Scots*

(7) The Armada

Philip saw England’s Queen Elizabeth I as his chief Protestant enemy
- 1580s
Elizabeth had supported the Dutch against Spain
- secretly, then openly
encouraged English captains to plunder Spanish treasure ships
- Sea Dogs
Francis Drake looted Spanish cities in the Americas.
- most daring Sea Dog
- Elizabeth made him a knight
Philip prepared a huge armada
- end English attacks and subdue the Dutch
- to carry a Spanish invasion force to England
Armada sailed
- 1588
- more than 130 ships, 20,000 men, and 2,400 pieces of artillery
- Spanish were confident of victory
‘strange freak of weather’ however, favored the other side in English Channel
- lumbering Spanish ships took losses from the lighter, faster English ships.
- Suddenly, a savage storm blew up, scattering the Armada
- tattered remnants limped home in defeat
defeat of the Spanish Armada ended Philip’s plan to invade England
- little short – term effect of his power
- Spain’s naval superiority did dwindle
Dutch, English, and French fleets challenged – and surpassed – Spanish power both in Europe and around the world
- 1600s - 1700s

5. The Thirty Years’ War

a) Preconditions for War

(1) Fragmented Germany

French philosopher Voltaire
- by early modern times, the Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire
it was a patchwork of several hundred small, separate states
- these states were under the authority of the Holy Roman emperor
- chosen by seven leading German princes called electors
In practice, the emperor had little power over the many princes

(2) Religious Division

Religion further divided the German states
- north was largely Protestant
- south was Catholic
- sparked the Thirty Years’ War
war had both religious and political causes
began in Bohemia
- present – day Czech Republic
Ferdinand, the Hapsburg king of Bohemia
- sought to suppress Protestants
- assert royal power over local nobles
few rebellious Protestant noblemen tossed two royal officials out of a castle window in Prague
- May 1618
sparked a general revolt
- Ferdinand moved to suppress
both sides sought allies
- began as a local conflict widened into a general European war
Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman emperor
- 1619
tried to roll back the Reformation
- support of Spain, Poland, and other Catholic states

(3) Calvinism & the Palatinate*

(4) Maximilian of Bavaria & the Catholic League*

b) Four Periods of War

early stages of the war
- defeated the Bohemians and their Protestant allies.
Protestant powers like the Netherlands and Sweden sent troops into Germany
political motives outweighed religious issues.
- Catholic and Protestant rulers shifted alliances to suit their own interests
- Catholic France joined Lutheran Sweden against the Catholic Hapsburgs
fighting took a terrible toll
Roving armies of mercenaries burned villages, destroyed crops, and killed without mercy
Murder and torture were followed by famine and disease
Wolves, not seen in settled areas since the Middle Ages, stalked the deserted streets of once – bustling villages
war led to severe depopulation
- exact population statistics do no exist
- historians estimate that as many as one third of the people in the German states may have died as a result of the war

(1) The Bohemian Period*

(2) The Danish Period*

(3) The Swedish Period*

(4) The Swedish – French Period*

c) The Treaty of Westphalia

the exhausted combatants accepted a series of treaties
- 1648
- Peace of Westphalia
many powers had been involved in the conflict
- war ended with a general European peace
- attempt to settle other international problems as well
France emerged as a clear winner
- gaining territory on both its Spanish and German frontiers
Hapsburgs were big losers
- had to accept the almost total independence of all the princes of the Holy Roman Empire
- more than 360 separate states
- states still formally acknowledged the leadership of the Holy Roman emperor
- each state had its own government, coinage, state church, armed forces, and foreign policy
Netherlands and the Swiss Federation won recognition as independent states

Source : http://www.bradwynne.com/ap-euro/notes/ap-euro1-unit-iii-notes.docx

Web site link to visit: http://www.bradwynne.com

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