Modern Era 1750 - 1914 summary and study guide

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Modern Era 1750 - 1914 summary and study guide

1750-1914

I. Questions of Periodization

A. Continuities and Breaks

1. Continuities

a. Absolutism in France

b. Sense of cultural superiority of the Chinese

c. “Revolutionary” change didn’t supplant everything

i. People learned to be both scientist and Christian

ii. Slavery outlawed, but former slaves not embraced into society

iii. Racism – both social and institutional continued

2. Breaks

a. French Revolution

b. End of Japanese isolation and rapid modernization in Japan

3. What makes the “modern age”

a. Politics

i. Trend away from monarchy toward greater political representation

ii. Form of democracy or at least an appearance of democracy

b. Economics

i. Mechanization and industrialization become driving forces

ii. Shift from mercantilism/feudalism to capitalism

iii. No longer based primarily on agriculture – increasingly on industry and commerce

c. Society

i. Class transformation

ii. Old aristocracies – derive power from noble birth – gradually fade away

iii. New elites status comes from wealth

iv. Middle class and industrial working class expand

v. Modern societies become urbanized

vi. Population growth accelerates

d. Culture

i. Scientific, secular world view becomes dominant

ii. Artistic styles change more rapidly and radically than ever before

4. End of the era – 1914

a. 19th century – Europe at the peak of its power – replaced by the US in 20th century

b. New philosophies, scientific theories, cultural movements attacking Western values

c. Diplomatic trends bringing nations towards war

d. World War I would speed up process of European decline

5. Continuities

a. Conservative backlash – reaction – strove to keep this power in check

i. Some more successful at fighting liberalizing/democratizing elements

B. Causes of changes from the previous period and within this period

1. West major causal agent of change

a. Underwent vast changes/caused vast changes in other areas of the world

b. Begun process in 1400s with

1. Voyages of exploration

2. Colonization

3. Appropriation of world trading networks

4. Establishment of new trade routes

c. W. Europe consolidated hold on

a. Foreign colonies

b. Global trade

d. Unprecedented – never before/since has one civilization truly dominated the world

e. With it come huge moral and ethical price

a. Imperialism linked to warfare, racial prejudice, economic exploitation, slavery

b. Harmful effects still felt in Africa, Latin America, and Asia

2. Industrialization

a. Changed the way the world made goods

b. Changed the way the world did business

3. Political changes in Europe led to first world war

a. Enlightenment

b. Attempts at radical reform

c. Unification of Germany and Italy

d. Shifting balance of power among European nations

e. End of absolute monarchies

f. Revolutions established set of ideals that could be pushed for in the future

4. Important changes independent of Europe occurred

5. Imperialism

a. Industrialization and imperialism both interconnected

b. Developments in one region have impact on other regions

c. Improvements in communication/transportation allow regional developments to expand

d. Movement away from Western Hemisphere

a. W. Hemisphere freed self from European control by early 19th century

b. Imperialists turn eyes toward Africa and Asia

i. Exploitation easy

ii. Markets huge

6. Nationalism

a. Nationalism a huge force – why did it grow

b. Sparked rebellions, independence movements, unification movements

c. Sparked domination and colonialism

7. Eugenics/Ethnocentrism – ideological explanations for racial superiority

a. Most Europeans ethnocentric – viewed other cultures as barbarian/uncivilized

a. Ethnocentrism leads to social improvements – can’t exactly treat selves bad

b. Social Darwinists

a. Applied theory of natural selection to sociology

i. Dominant races rose to the top due to “survival of the fittest”

ii.Britain obviously most fit – must be the superior race

c. White Man’s Burden – Europeans have moral obligation to teach others how to be civilized

a. Rudyard Kipling poem

b. Convert to Christianity and civilized in the European fashion

c. Europeans knew what was best for everyone

d. Compared to other cultures

a. Chinese – Middle Kingdom – “center of the world”

b. Japan also believed they were racially superior

c. Difference

i. Europe has military technology to act on these beliefs

ii. Quite capable of subjugating peoples for economic/military/political reason

iii. Success only encourages them to do it more

8. Why did changes occur so quickly during this time period?

a. Communicated more quickly than before

a. Trains and ships raced across the continent and seas

b. Telegraph cables were laid

c. By 1914 telephones ringing

d. By 1914 planes in the air

b. Consider speed of Japanese industrialization

c. Consider speed of colonizing Africa vs. colonizing Latin America

d. Urbanization

a. Ideas spread more quickly

b. Like-minded people able to associate

c. Individuals had contact with greater variety of people – greater variety of ideas

i.. For example, India learns English customs, culture quickly

d. Countryside maintains conservative views

II. Changes

Global commerce

Communications

Telegraph

Telephone

Radio

National postal system

Steamship

Railroad

Technology

III. Changes in patterns of world trade

World Trade

Introduction

Manufactured goods of the west and raw materials used to produce them – focus

Atlantic World

Plantation system and exploitation of newly independent L. American nations

iii. Methods of extracting natural resources changes

1. Railroads and roads constructed – can go to the interior

iv. Instead of small, independent farm plots by natives > large plantations

1. Crops chosen based on needs of industrialized West

Latin American Trade – increased significantly

Profitable sugar, cotton, cacao plantations

Increased importance of slavery

Monroe Doctrine – Britain takes larger role in recipient of goods

Cut out colonization by other European countries

More mfg goods go to L. America for raw materials

iv. Beef exports increase – refrigerated railroad car

v. Products

1. Cuba – tobacco and sugar

2. Brazil – sugar and coffee – later rubber

3. Mexico – copper, silver

4. Peru – guano

5. Chile – grain, copper

6. Argentine – beef, grain, hides, wool

vi. Large landholders benefit at expense of smaller, independent farmers

vii. Dependent on cheaper foreign goods – better quality, cheaper to produce

1. Wealth monopolized by a few

viii. Foreign investment gives capital

1. But…many industrial/transporation projects owned by foreigners

Trade with the Islamic World – decreased significantly

Ottoman Empire weakened

Revolts

Disinterest in industrialization

Christian/Jews in Empire carry on trade independently

ii. Domestic system producers can’t compete with industrialized nations

iii. Threat of competition lead to reforms

1. Tanzimet reforms – facilitated trade, but came too late

iv. Made dependent on European imports and influence

1. Foreign investment to bolster economy

2. Extraterritoriality – Europeans allowed in Ottoman major commercial centers

v. Suez Canal makes Egypt a significant commercial/political power

Qing China and the Opium Trade – trade imbalance shifts

From 1644 to 19th century trade benefited China

Controlled out of few ports – Canton primarily

Trade in Chinese tea, silk, porcelain for silver – basis of economy

Trade imbalance – extremely profitable for China

ii. Britain annoyed with trade imbalance

1. Indian opium switches balance

2. Now silver flows out of China

iii. After Opium Wars eventually China open to Europe

1. Nations map out spheres of influence

2. Extraterritoriality

Russia and World Trade

Occupy backward position in trade and technology

Exported some grain to w. Europe for Western machinery

Difficult to compete due to outdated agricultural methods

Desire to compete in world trade led to end of serfdom in 1861

Japanese Entrance into World Trade

Second Perry expedition opened Japanese ports in 1854

Japan industrialized

Trade relations with Netherlands, Great Britain, Russia

Depended more on imports of raw materials

End of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

Ended due to

Enlightenment thought

religious conviction

slave revolt in Haiti

ii. British ended role first – 1807- then encouraged others later to end also

1. Britain seized hundreds of slave ships

2. Slavery continued to Cuba and Brazil

i. Cooperation of African rulers

iii. Didn’t totally end until 1867

Industrial Revolution

What is it?

Civilizations no longer principally agricultural/rural

Mass production of goods by means of machine power – industrialization

Importance of trade and commerce skyrocketed

Urbanization

Capitalism rules supreme

Metaphoric revolution – takes decades – no clear-cut beginning or end

But…can’t underestimate effect

Changed life in Europe more thoroughly than political revolutions

New machines at hands of ordinary people

Effected how people work, where they lived, how they views political problems

Forced West to spread practices to colonies and exploit colonies economically

History

Began in Great Britain in mid 1700s

Great Britain has large domestic deposits of coal

Japan lacks coal – needed territorial expansion

Enclosure movement – removal of land from farming

Common area gone – loss of livelihood for peasants

Now private land for private gain – you have motivation - mine

Causes

Agricultural Revolution – Second Agricultural Revolution 18th century

Improved farming techniques

Up to half the population left farms for cities

New industrial jobs becoming available

c. Why so much more crop yield?

i. High yield crops – potatoes, corn from New World

ii. Crop rotation instead of leaving fallow

iii. New technologies

a. New machines for plowing, seeding, reaping

b. Chemical fertilizers

Increase in population

More food available

Less chance for famine

Life expectancy rose – population increase

50% growth to 190 million from 1700-1800

Decreased death rate

improved medical care

nutrition

hygiene sanitation

Improvements in technology

New sources of energy

steam power

Invention of the steam engine – James Watt

Improved by Watt, started by others

availability of sources of coal to fuel machinery

ii. natural gas and petroleum later

iii. fed industrial and transportation improvements

New materials

steel

c. New methods

i. factory system

ii. Put factory near water-power source

d. Inventions had always been occurring, but so many happen in 18th century

e. New inventions for textile industry

i. Flying shuttle – sped up weaving process - 1733

ii. Spinning jenny – spins vast amount of thread – 1764

iii. Cotton gin – Eli Whitney – 1793 – quick processing of cotton

4. Protestant work ethic

a. Earthly success is a sign of personal salvation

i. Acquisition of capital and development of industry

b. Value of hard work

5. Domestic system not as effective

a. cotton woven into cloth at homes

b. Middlemen drop off wool/cotton at homes

c. Women then sell cloth to middlemen > buyers

6. Philosophical – Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations

a. Private ownership

b. Let open market determine demand for goods and services

c. free-market system/capitalism fits needs of individuals/nations

d. laissez faire capitalism – government removes self from process

e. Response to failing mercantilist policies

i. corrupt, inefficient

ii. monarchies managed economies

iii. Phases

1. Phase One

a. Britain – 1780s – steam engine used to power textile machines

b. Coal mining uses steam power

c. James Watt patented designs in 1782 – efficient and relatively cheaper

2. Phase Two

a. Steam engine used in every economic field - adapted

i. “We sell what everyone desires and that is power.”

b. Stimulate huge wave of invention and technological innovation

i. Transportation – steam ships, railroads

ii. Electricity – telegraph – communications to the modern age

3. Phase Three

a. New energy sources, new raw materials and new inventions

b. Bessemer Process – cheaper way to make steal – stronger/more useful

c. Electricity overtakes steam and coal as energy source

d. Commercial uses of petroleoum

iii. Factory System

1. Replaces domestic system – putting out system

2. Thousands of new products now created efficiently and inexpensively

a. Interchangeable parts – Eli Whitney – machines and parts uniform

i. Repaired and replaced easily

b. Assembly line

i. Add only one part to a finished product

Transformative effects

Vast numbers of Asians/Africans provide labor for plantations/mines

Transportation Revolution

Invention of the steam locomotive – 1820s

Steamship – 1807

Internal Combustion Engine – 1885 – Daimler – car

Airplane – 1903 – speed of transportation increased a bit

Urbanization

Development of factory system

New classes

Birth of the working class – proletariat

Masses who worked in factories, mines, other industry

At first, made up of peasants who had abandoned agricultural work

At first, poorly treated and barely compensated

Long hours – 14 hours a day, 6 days a week

Disgusting, crowded living conditions

Unsafe working conditions

fire, dangerous machines, poisonous/harmful materials

iv. child labor common

Rise of middle class

merchants, bankers, factory owners, industrialists

Became landowners of agriculture as well

Farmers rented, poor laborers employed

3. Social status began to be determined more by wealth than family position

Reform movements

Number of people with influence (aristorcrats/middle class) see inhumanity

Capitalism a positive, but need laws to keep abuses in check

Government needs to act on behalf of the workers

Some want to get rid of system, some want to merely reform it

Some nations do both – capitalist and socialist

Reform more possible in Great Britain/United States

Has democracy, middle class, impact of Enlightenment

Not so in Russia with autocracy

Marxism more attractive here

Parliaments started passing laws that limited hours, child labor, safer working conditions

Labor unions formed to bargain for the big 3 – or threaten to strike

Factory owners realized happy, healthy, well-paid force productive

Eventually led to communication revolution

Telegraph

Telephone

Radio

viii. Major consequences

1. countries with industrial technology had advanced military weapons

a. Able to conquer people who did not have this technology

2. countries needed access to raw materials to make finished products and markets

a. colonies would fit both of these roles quite well

ix. Because started in Britain – Britain becomes dominant global nation of 19th century

x. Need for communication improvements to facilitate organizing expanding businesses

1. Telegraph – 1837 – communicate great distances in seconds

2. Telephone – 1876 – Bell

3. Radio – 1890s

4. Lightbulb – 1879 – hey, we can work into the night

xi. Role of the individual changes

1. Man not just working with machines, he becomes part of machine

a. Working to the noise of machines

b. Pace of work more rapid than at home

2. Consistency of function more important than independent thought

xii. Abuse of labor

1. Initially overworked, underpaid, unsafe working conditions

a. 16 hour workdays, children as young as 6

xiii. Living conditions change

1. No longer fresh air and sunshine – air pollution and hazardous machinery

2. No longer seasonal adjustments to work pattern – same product day after day

3. Leads to despair and hopelessness

4. Minimal police protection at first

xiv. Literature created to reflect times

1. Charles Dickens writes of social ills of industrialization

xv. Philosophical – Karl Marx – Communist Manifesto

1. working class eventually revolt and take control of means of production

2. Instruments of power – government, courts, police, Church on side of the rich

a. uprising would make these instruments of power unnecessary

3. saw flaw in capitalist system

xvi. Conservative backlash – don’t like the changes

1. Luddites – destroyed factory equipment, protested working conditions/wages

a. Government exacts harsh punishments to prevent this type of protest

i. Sides with the wealthy…surprise

xvii. Changes urban life

1. bus service, sidewalks, street lights, steam heating of homes, icebox refrigeration, indoor plumbing, sewing machines, canned food, urban sewage systems, medicine

xviii. Affected navies and armies of all countries

1. Steam powered battleships, modern rifles, modern artillery, machine gun

2. United States Civil War – first industrial war – 1861-1865

a. Franco-Prussian – 1870-1871

xix. Influence of Industrial Nations over Nonindustrial

1. Obviously they are conquered, forced

2. Businessmen/industrialists struck deals with local aristocrats/politicians

a. Encouraged monoculture – extraction of one, small set of crops/resources

b. Monoculture – damages environment and retards economy

c. “Banana Republic” – derogatory term

d. Exploits native workers

i. Money ends up in hands of a small number of aristocrats/politician

xx. Changes after 1850

1. Societies received higher wages, shorter working hours allowing leisure activities

a. Leisure time led to popular interest in theater and sports

2. Additional employment opportunities as secretaries, salespeople, clerical jobs

a. Some filled by women, especially unmarried women

3. Clothing more affordable – general population can now wear similar fashions

4. Popular consumption led to advertising campaigns

Differential timing in different societies

Factors of production needed for industrialization - Britain

Land – including natural resources such as coal and iron ore

Labor – including thousands of dispossessed farmers evicted after enclosure

Capital – banking and investment interests capable of funding costs of factories and machinery

Entrepreneurship – groups of individuals with the knowledge of combinging land, labor and capital to establish factory production

What geographic factors needed to industrialize

Industrial growth measured by iron, coal, steel, cotton production – access?

Next United States, then Western Germany, France, Netherlands, N. Italy

Those in South and East Europe lagged behind – agriculture based

Russia totally backward thanks to serfdom - reliance on agriculture

United States

By early 1800s textile factory system transported to US

Production methods/technological improvements spurred industry/railroads

other European nations

France and Germany complex industrial economies in 19th century

Russia remains agricultural country

Government sponsored programs turn of the century

Russian banking system and protective tariffs later to protect industry

Russia ranked 4th in steel production by 1900

Japan

Partial Modernization under Tokugawa Japan

Partially modernization both economically and socially

Population growth steady – increased urbanization

Agriculture – fewer people producing more – Western technique

Allowed for more working class – urbanization

iii. Trade, commerce, manufacturing increasingly important

iv. National infrastructure needed – roads, canals, ports

v. Merchant class emerges – becomes middle class

vi. Awareness of scientific/technological knowledge from West – few

b. Problems with partial modernization

i. Threatened 5% aristocracy

1. Urbanization, Western learning, growing merchant class

ii. So…modernization controlled in early stages

1. Military class – samurai – control gunpowder

Meiji Restoration – second half 19th century – quickly industrialized

Outside forces forced change – Commodore Perry

Friendly words, but naval bombardment for show

Next five years, other European countries pressure Japan

Looks like they might be headed down path of other nations

b. Samurai leaders in southern provinces push to end foreign influence

i. Sat-Cho Alliance – fires on foreign ships

1.Fired back by Europe – reason to overthrow shogun

2. Install Emperor Meiji to power

a. First emperor in 1000 years to have power

Some Latin American countries

Seen as sources for natural resources and markets

Not so much as potential industrial nations

Hampered by lack of local capital for investment

Industrialization would need to be financed by foreigners

Eventually to Asia and Africa in 20th centuries

Comparing Industrialization in Great Britain and Japan

Sources of Capital

Britain

private entrepreneurs, capitalists

Limited foreign investment

Japan

Government investment in initial states

Zaibatsu – few wealthy banking, industrial families – developed large business interests

Conglomerates that bought up textile mills and factories

Limited foreign investment

Energy Resources

Britain

Large domestic deposits of coal for steam power

Large domestic deposits of iron for building machinery

Timber running out, had to move to coal

Coal mining required machine power to pump water

Japan

Has to import energy sources

Availability of Technology

Developed originally in Britain

Textile mills

First steam engine

First steel-making process

Replaced other methods of powering machines

wind, water, animal

Japan

Had to import machinery

Pool of workers

Britain

almost doubling population in 1700s – 5>9 million

clothing industry – piecework by poorly paid women – sweatshops

Ennclosure Acts – pool of laborless workers

Japan

Also rapid population growth

Clothing industry – sweatshops as well

Transportation System

Britain

Internal railway system

Canals

Shipping companies for export

Small size

Japan

Internal railway system

Shipping companies for export

Societal Changes

Britain

Reform movements

Class tension, labor unions, socialism

Women’s suffrage

Universal education

Middle class

Leisure time

Japan

some increased opportunity for education for women

continued reliance on traditional family life

subordinate position of women

iii. Class tensions

7. Summary of differences

a. Both followed similar paths, but Japan on fast forward

i. A few decades what it took Britain a century

ii. Didn’t have to invent everything – just implement advances

b. Private corporations rose up

i. Industrialists like Mitsubishi family

c. Factories built

d. Urbanization increased dramatically

e. Reform instituted

Mutual relation of industrial and scientific developments

Inventions pushed industrial revolution

Industrialization

Made European nations richer > more technologically adept > boosted need for scientific knowledge to explore

New weaponry in hands of westerners

iii. New inventions needed to extract resources from earth – colonies

iv. Cotton gin made textile revolution possible

1. Extraction of clean cotton thread from raw cotton balls

Commonalities

Goes through the same process whether 18th century Britain as 20th century Nigeria

Factories built in areas near towns/cities

These built near sources of power, transportation, pool of workers

Shift of people from countryside to city - urbanization

Due to…caused by…

Poor harvests

Too little land

Too many people to feed

Middle class forms

Factory managers

Shopowners

Professionals – lawyers, accountants

Brutal working conditions/unsafe and unhealthy living condition leads to reform

Political reform

Socioeconomic reform

Muckrakers – propaganda writers

Settlement houses – local buildings for kids/moms – YMCAs

f. Comparing scientific revolution to industrial revolution

i. Both changed the world

1. Knowledge spread and improvements made across cultures

2. Though there were patents, scientists/inventors built on ideas of colleagues

3. Collaborative effort allows for constant improvement

ii. Scientific Revolution – discovering, learning, evaluating, understanding the natural world

iii. Industrial Revolution – applying that understanding to natural ends

c. Industrial Revolution Flow Chart

i. Effects

1. Increase in need for resources and markets

a. Colonization

i. Rise of nationalism

a. Independence movements and revolutions

2. Increase in urbanization

a. Increase in social unrest

i. Rise of nationalism

a. Independence movements and revolutions

ii. Changes in social thought – from Enlightenment ideals

a. Women’s Emancipation movements

b. End of the slave trade

c. Rise of unions and laws to protect workers

d. Rise of Marxism

e. Independence movements and revolutions

3. Improves agricultural techniques which then fuels more industrial revolution

Changes in patterns of world trade

European nations seize trading networks from local/regional control

Connected them into a truly global network

IV. Demographic and environmental changes

Migrations

Extreme hardships persisted – people dreamed of better life by escaping cruelties of home

1800-1920 50 million Europeans migrated to North/South America

Push factors

Famine – Ireland

Anti-Semitism – Russia

Religious toleration

Poverty

Joblessness

d. Industrialization

i. Substantial numbers – especially young adults migrated from country to the city

a. Upset makeup of traditional family

ii. Movement of middle class away from city to the suburbs

e. Patterns of immigration

i. European settler colonies came into conflict with native populations

a. Also exposed indigenous populations to disease

i. Not as severe a reaction as Americas

ii. Hawaiians and Maoris

ii. Need for laborers in Americas brought massive immigration from Europe

iii. Religious persecution

a. Russian pogroms on Jews

End of the Atlantic Slave Trade

Demise from economic and practical considerations

Too expensive to obtain slaves

Growing revulsion among Western countries

Moral, ethical and religious reasons

Greater number of citizens/politicians unwilling to continue

ii. Turning point when Great Britain – 1807/1808 – wanted to make slavery illegal in all parts

1. During peace settlement following Napoleonic Wars

i. Great Britain convinces other countries to follow

2. Eventually spread to Americas

i. Lastly Cuba and Brazil

ii. America half slave and half free

1. Make slave trade illegal first

2. Civil War needed to make slavery illegal

iii. Even though illegal – still 2 million traded in 1800s

1. Islamic states of West Africa still kept slaves – Zanzibar

i. Close to 5 million

iv. Attempts by West to end slavery

1. Abolitionist movement

2. Recolonization in Africa

i. Sierra Leone – British colony

ii. Liberia – American Colonization Society

3. Eventually British ships blockaded West African shoreline

i. Hunted down slave ships

ii. Bombarded coastal fortresses

iii. France and US join haphazardly

V. Effects of the slave trade on Africa

1. Some believe it led Africans to rely more on slave trade than before

2. Loss of population growth

3. Internal trade relies more on importation of foreign goods

i. guns, textiles, alcohol

ii. Doesn’t give Africans a chance to produce goods by themselves

4. Some argue it didn’t have that much of an effect

i. Small proportion actually taken

5. Coastal kingdoms become ruled by warlords/merchants

i. Demanded kings given slaves to satisfy debts

6. Introduction of guns increased likelihood of intertribal war

i. Made these wars more lethal

7. Economic slump after end of slave trade – many regions became quite wealthy

i. Slump leaves regions open to foreign takeover in 1800s

8. Antislavery military efforts by British gave Europeans feeling they could intervene

i. Set precedent that it was OK to conquer

New Birthrate Patterns

a. Life expectancy rose – population increase

i. 50% growth to 190 million from 1700-1800

b. Decreased death rate

i. improved medical care

ii. nutrition

hygiene sanitation

gains in life expectancy in developing nations still small

Population Revolution in the West

Middle of 18th century – population exploded

End of episodes of epidemic disease

Improved diets – increased consumption of potatoes

Larger number of healthy adults increased birth rates

Lower infant mortality rates

Larger populations equal ready supply of labor

b. After 1850 rates change again

i. Majority of population resides in cities

ii. Drop in death rate

1. More hygienic practices

2. Louis Pasteur – germ theory

iii. Drop in birth rate

1. Families don’t need to produce large families to serve as laborers on farm

Population Growth in the Non-West

Population in Latin America doubled in 19th century

China – development of sweet potato

Growing population encouraged need for improved agricultural methods/technology

c. Japan – improvements in nutrition and medical care

i. Like China – strain in natural resources

Food supply

More food available

Less chance for famine

E. Natural Resources

a. Stealing is cheaper than dealing

i. Gained incredible wealth

1. Colonize, drain natural resources, don’t compensate natives

ii. Finished goods then sold to colonies

1. Not allowed to buy from anyone else

iii. Colonial powers became rich at expense of colonies

b. Europe had coal/iron ore, but climate restricted what could be grown

i. Need goods from tropical climates – rubber/cotton

F. Due to colonization – world now exposed to European values

G. Landscape changes

a. Limited raw materials depleted faster than at any time in human history

H. Increase in pollution

a. Water supplies contaminated by human sewage and industrial waste

b. Dark skies from caol-produced smoke

i. Rickets – disease of the bones – underexposure to sunlight

I. Population growth

a. Causes

i. Greater agricultural efficiency

ii. Medical advances

iii. Gradually rising prosperity

b. Population of Europe

i. 175 million in 1800 > 423 million by 1900

J. Urbanization

a. Most jobs in or near cities

b. Old cities increase in size – London passes 1 million, same with Paris, New York

c. New cities start popping up – especially if near energy source

d. Conditions dismal

i. Overcrowded – disease can spread easily

a. Cholera/tuberculosis

ii. Water and air pollution horrific

a. Modern sewage systems rare

b. Heating through coal and wood

K. Increased general level of prosperity

a. At first, industrialization –generates incredible wealth quickly, but it sticks to a few people

i. First 50 years only middle class really benefit

b. In 1850, when Industrial Revolution essentially over – working class starts to benefit

i. Benefits start to widen out – slow process

ii. Need reform

V. Changes in social and gender structure

A. Industrial Revolution

1. Changes Gender

a. Poor women who had taken care of home/worked in fields shifted to

1. factories/sweatshops

2. putting out system – little time/space for domestic work

3. Actually had more “opportunity” than middle/upper class

a. But I doubt they’d be too excited

4. Still paid less than men

5. By end of century, most working women were single

6. Reform laws limited working hours of women

7. Women lost manufacturing jobs of the domestic (putting out) system

a. Expected to return to role as homemaker/childcare provider

b. Upper class women

1. More wealth/more servants to manage

2. Less influence/power outside the home than in previous eras

c. New group – middle class housewives

1. Lived on outskirts of cities – with servant or two

2. Husbands went to work in white-collar jobs

3. Like upper class women, isolated from the work world

4. Relegated to afternoon social calls/drinking tea

5. Victorian Age idealized women

a. Manners/etiquette counted

b. Nothing distasteful should be seen by women

6. Contradiction between what was appropriate for middle class and the realities of the lower class pushed middle class to demand change – led movements

7. As men earn money, women return to traditional roles

a. Power diminishes

8. This is the group that starts organizing to demand rights/suffrage

9. New culture of consumption meant to free up women to pursue activities outside of home

a. Sewing machines, clocks, stoves, refrigerators, ovens

d. Factory laborers

1. Have to work long hours and fulfill traditional role as caretaker for husband, children, home

e. Social mobility – ability to move from one class to the next

1. middle class expands

2. standard of living improves

f. Turned husband into wage earner and wife into homemaker

2. Changes social class

a. New aristocrats

1. Those who became rich based on industrial success

2. Old money vs. new money

3. Wealth based on Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations

a. Private ownership

b. Middle class

1. managers, accountants, ministers, lawyers, doctors, skilled professionals

c. Working class

1. factory workers + peasant farmers

2. New twist – now the massive lower class is working side by side – urbanization

3. Able to daily see the huge class discrepancy

a. Saw elite gain wealth at their expense

4. Under feudalism – people resigned to fate – that’s the way it had always been

a. But…this was a new phenomenon – saw change before their eyes

B. Commercial and demographic developments

C. Emancipation of serfs/slaves

1. Attracted reformers’ interests – abolishing African slave trade/emancipating Russian serfs

a. Abolishing African slave trade

1. 2. Safe havens for former slaves

a. Sierra Leone – safe haven for former slaves, British colony

b. Liberia – colonization scheme for freed slaves from U.S.

b. Emancipating Russian serfs

1. Serfdom continued until 1861

2. Causes/Effects of serfdom

a. Dissatisfaction with their lives led to acts of violence/rebellion

b. Can’t leave the land – Russia doesn’t have pool of factory labor

c. Russia lacked internal market for goods – no one has money

d. Lacked incentive to work harder, grow more, improve land

3. Emancipation of 1861

a. Now free, no longer bound to land owned by large landowners

b. serfs could now take more work off of land – available for factories

c. but…indebted freemen did not improve agricultural output

1. Like sharecropping vs. slavery in the American South

d. Former serfs, peasants, now had to pay for land

1. Valuations and taxes high, almost an impossible task

2. But…slavery actually expands before it diminishes

a. Eli Whitney’s cotton gin necessitated more slaves in American South

1. Might have died out earlier – cotton farming a waste of time

b. Cotton gin requires a ton of cheap labor to stick cotton in machine

D. Tension between work patterns

E. Ideas about gender

1. Although in most societies status of women remained secondary, great changes

2. In West, greater awareness of unfair and unequal treatment began to spread

a. Stimulated by Enlightenment theories

b. Stimulated by active role of women in American and French revolutions

3. Industrial Revolution altered the conditions under which women worked

a. Shifted workplace away from the farm

b. Men and women both worked in mines, factories, spaces away from the home

c. Created a domestic sphere and separate working sphere

4. Europe and US women of lower classes compelled to enter workplace

a. Bore double burden of serving as primary homemakers and caregivers for their families

5. After mid-1800s, # of working women declined

a. Women of middle/upper class rarely worked anyway

b. Wages for industrial workers increased

1. Jobs more desirable to men

c. Laws restricting number of hours that women and children could work

6. Cult of domesticity – stressing the women’s place in the home – dominated Western culture

a. Men’s in the workplace

7. Certain occupations open to women – child care, teaching, domestic household work, nursing

8. Strong vigorous women’s movements appeared in Europe, Canada and the United States

a. Demanded suffrage – voting rights

b. Equal opportunity to work

c. Equal pay

d. Temperance

9. Handful of European nations – gave women the right to vote before World War I

10. Move toward women’s equality slower in non-Western societies

a. in some educational level rose

b. property rights rose

c. Like West, women could work in certain occupations – agriculture, artisans, teachers

d. Like West – lower class women tended to enter workplace

VI. Political revolutions and independence movements

Major political revolutions

Centralized monarchies the norm, but there’s a variety

Constitutional limits in Great Britain

Total autocracy in France

Standard method of ruling

Absolute monarch with aristocrats that control land, wealth, political influence

Common strands in modern revolutions

influence of the intellectual movements and ideas

democratic principles of the Enlightenment

Marxist principles that underlie Communism

Importance of peasants and urban workers as actors in revolutions

shift to authoritarian rule in movements that began as democratic uprisings

Major themes

Enlightenment philosophies that education and reason could improve society

Spurned revolutions in N. America, France, Haiti

ii. Latin American independence movements flourished first part of 19th century

iii. Turn of the century – early 20th – Chinese dynastic rule ends

United States

Causes/Impetus

Frustrating mercantile policy of Great Britain

Drove American nuts – OK when they weren’t enforced, but…

Common theme in revolutions – frustration with economic exploitation

Dependent status of colonies symbolized by “no taxation without representation”

Enlightenment ideas

Inspired the revolution itself

John Locke – social contract

People gave rights in exchange for gov’t maintaining order

People could overthrow gov’t if they don’t

Inspired the type of government that was created after it succeeded

Debt from Seven Years War – French and Indian War

Changed the boundaries of two empire’s worldwide possessions

Felt Americans should share in costs of war

Frustration with “taxation without representation”

5. Restrictions after Seven Years War

a. Couldn’t migrate to Appalachian territories

i. Brits couldn’t protect Americans w/ Native Americans

Stages

Noncompliance with British laws

Reprisals by the British

Protests: boycotts, violence, letters and declarations to the British crown

Famous pamphlet – Common Sense – Thomas Paine

Before – most colonists apathetic – British sympathy

Or…Britain too strong to defeat

ii. Said monarchy takes away from American’s natural rights

1. Printing press became powerful tool

Cycle of escalating protests and reprisals

Boston Harbor – terrorism > British troops stationed in Boston

Conflict at Lexington and Concord

Declaration of Independence – 1776

War

Alliances with Britain’s enemies

France more than happy to help out

1777 French committed ships, soldiers, weapons and money

1781 French and British troops cornered Cornwallis

Defeat of the British forces

Peace Treaty, 1783

Outcome/Effects

Establishment of the United States of America in 1776

Recognition by other nations and finally the British

Loss of territory and revenues by the British

France

Causes/Impetus

Long-term effects of rule by absolute monarchy

Policies of Louix XVI

National debt and financial collapse

Living in lavish luxury at Versailles

France’s war debts

Droughts damaging French harvests

Spending of Marie Antoinette

Catalysts

Inflation, unemployment, poor harvests, food shortages

Nobility scoff at spending restrictions

Louis XVI needed to raise taxes

Unfair tax system – wealthy First/Second Estates exempt

Privileges accorded the nobility; abuses

Wide social and economic gap between ordinary citizens and the country’s elite

Second Estate – 2% of opulation

Privileges accorded the Roman Catholic Church; abuses

First Estate – 1% of population

Rise of the bourgeoisie; rivalry for power with nobles and Church

Frustrated middle class – possessed wealth and education

Seen as equals to the peasants of the Third Estate

Conditions of peasants; series of poor harvests

Conditions of urban workers; sans culottes

Enlightenment ideas; philosophers

Many of whom were French

Made powerful arguments in favor of

Fair government

Equal treatment of all citizens

Separation of governmental powers

Civil rights

11. Example of the American revolution

Stages

Four stages

Aristocrats challenge king

Louis XVI calls Estates General – hadn’t met in 175 years

Bourbon monarchs ruled through divine right

Bourgeoisie challenge voting process in Estates-General

Three Estates – clergy, nobility, everybody else

Third Estate wants sweeping changes that would hurt others

Other two outvote 2-1

Third Estate declared themselves National Assembly

Tennis Court Oath

Demanded a Constitution – not just change

iii. King pressures other two to join National Assembly

Popular revolution, the people in the cities, Paris especially support bourgeoisie

Storming the Bastille – July 14, 1789 starts wave of revolution

Found out Louis XVI actually summoned troops

Sans-culottes radicals utilized for muscle

Peasants in the countryside support the revolution in Paris

Peasants attack nobility and clergy

Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette brought to Paris for “safety”

French Republic: National Convention

Adopt Declaration of the Rights of Man

Natural rights based on the Enlightenment, English Bill of Rights and the Declaration of Independence

“liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression”

Guaranteed freedoms of the press/religion – increased voting rights

These ideas swept across Europe – encouraging other revolts

Freedom, equality, rule of law

b. Abolished the feudal system

c. Altered the monopoly of the Catholic Church

i. Freedom of worship

d. 1791 – Constitutional monarchy

i. Angers those who want to get rid of king

ii. Angers those who want to preserve feudal system

e. Austria (Marie Antoinette’s home country)/Prussia invade to restore monarchy

f. New constitution – Jacobins, National Assembly replace king > republic

g. Reign of Terror

i. Afraid of foreign threats (Britain and Spain join)

1. Afraid of domestic chaos

ii. Committee of Public Safety – all powerful enforcer of revolution

1. Beheading tens of thousands of Frenchmen

iii. Went too far, leader Robespierre eventually beheaded

iv. Universal male suffrage - precedent

v. Universal military conscription - precedent

Five man government – 1795

Weak at dealing with domestic problems

Good at building up military

Great strategy – focus on issues abroad – take mind off of domestic problems

Unsolved problems

Continuing war with Great Britain, Austria

Corrupt politicians

Bread riots

Anger over policies related to the Church

Growing royalist support

5. Cycle of revolution

a. Initially – liberal nobility + wealthy middle class

b. This doesn’t go far enough – radical representatives of poor take over

c. This is too radical – end up moving to middle – conservative backlash

d. People want the good ol’ days – go back to an autocrat

Outcome/effects

National Assembly – Moderate Phase – 1789-1792

Formal abolition of feudalism

Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen

Revocation of privileges of the Roman Catholic Church

Reorganization of the Church under the state

d. Set up limited monarchy – Louis XVI sat on throne, but power to assembly

e. Didn’t go far enough

i. Rights not extended to Jews, Protestants, blacks

ii. Not extended to women

a. Major role as intellectuals, organizers, workers of Revolt

2. National Convention – Legislative Assembly – Radical Phase – 1792-1794

a. Abolished the monarchy and the aristocracy

a. As protection from foreign threat

a. Attack from Austria/German states

b. Emigres plotting return of throne

b. Royal family even plotted with nobles from foreign countries

a. Eventually captured trying to escape France

b. Extended suffrage to more but not all male citizens

c. People getting more ticked off

a. Economy worsening

b. Threat of foreign invasion

a. Prussia, Russia, Austria, Great Britain try to maintain monarchy – a bit nervous about precedent

d. Committee of Public Safety

a. Mobilized entire economy for combat

b. Instituted world’s first national draft

e. Reign of Terror (Jacobin Club)

a. Searching for spies, traitors, counterrevolutionaries

b. Civil liberties irrelevant – no due process

c. Even other radical parties targeted

d. 300,000 arrested – 30,000 put to death

3. Directory – Thermidorian Reaction – 1794-1799

a. Robespierre killed

b. 5-man council, absolute power

4. Napoleon “asked” to assume power

a. 1799 overthrows Directory

b. “Voted” in as First Consul by popular vote

c. Creates new Constitution (4th Constitution)

d. Good or bad

i. Bad

1. wars lasted for years, cost a ton, killed a ton

2. Denied women basic rights

3. Censored speech and the press

ii. Good

1. Bank of France

2. Napoleonic Code – Civil Law Code – French law

3. Established universities

4. Granted religious freedom

d. Domestic reforms

i. Agriculture, infrastructure, public education altered

ii. Normalized relations with the Church

iii. Restored tolerance of other religions

iv. Napoleonic Codes – equality of Frenchmen

1. Paternalistic – women/children severely limited

2. Recognized basic rights of men

e. External impact

i. Fended off aggressors and made France an aggressor

ii. Conquered Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Italy

iii. Dissolved Holy Roman Empire

1. Becomes confederacy of German states

iv. Makes himself king of new empire

v. Power undermined by nationalistic uprisings and guerilla warfare

vi. Defeated in Russia

1. Lured into Moscow, but then city was burned

a. No way to house troops, hung out to dry

2. Retreat back to France turns into disaster

vii. Army decimated – Napoleon exiled

f. Austria, Russia and Britain unite to overthrow Napoleon again upon return

i. Finally exiled to St. Helena – eventually dies

g. Congress of Vienna – 1815

i. Maintain balance of power in Europe – no major wars for 100 yrs

ii. France not punished, just returned borders to pre-Napoleon levels

iii. Reaffirmed absolute rule

1. returned monarchs to France, Spain, Holland, Italy

iv. Ignored ideals, rights established during French Revolution

1. Return Europe to the good ol days or autocracy

2. Agree to fight liberal reforms

3. Political controls actually tighten

a. Limited freedom of expression, press, censorship

b. More secret police forces

v. Very conservative

vi. Peace could be secured if equilibrium of geography/military kept

1. Austrian Klemens von Metternich’s Congress System

a. Concert of Europe

h. Impact of French Revolution

i. Didn’t the Revolution fail?

1. Dream of popular government faded – Comm Pub Safety

a. Napoleon a dictator

b. Old royal family actually restored to power

ii. But…

1. It did do away with absolute monarchy

2. monarchs still sat on thrones – no longer all-powerful

a. Yield to ministers, parliaments, assemblies

3. Gov’ts had to be more attentive to people’s needs

4. Starts trend of greater popular representation

5. Can no longer ignore the voices of the people

6. Spread the ideals of the revolution outside France

a. Thanks to Napoleon

7. Creates spirit of nationalism throughout Europe

a. Reaction to Napoleon’s invasion

i. Aftermath of Napoleonic Wars

i. Spirit of conservatism following 1815 defeat of Napoleon

1. Restore monarchs

2. Maintain balance of power to prevent future conflicts

ii. Liberalism

1. Protect the rights of the properties class

iii. Radicalism

1. Broader suffrage and social reforms for the lower class

iv. Nationalism unites Italy and Germany

iv. Comparing American and French Revolutions

1. US – colonial uprising against imperial power – independence movement

2. French Revolution – more of a revolution

a. Actually want to change political/economic system

b. Not merely a transfer of power from one elite group to another

c. Social-political structure radically changes

i. For US/Britain – structure remains essentially the same

3. But US a revolution – set precedent for colonies breaking away from empires

a. First to break away since Age of Exploration – 300 years

b. Ideas adopted in Declaration of Independence, Constitution and French Revolution borrowed around the world

v. Politics in Europe – 1815-1848

1. Great Britain

a. History of parliamentary system

b. Slow progress toward liberties

c. Less than 5% actually participated in parliament

d. Lower classes lobby for more powers

i. Govt gradually gives in to demands to avoid rebellion

2. France

a. Unlike Britain’s gradual reforms, France has a few mini-revolutions

b. Louis XVI family returns – parliamentary monarchy

c. Replaced by “Citizen King” – but still didn’t go far enough

d. Leads to revolution of 1848

3. Central and Eastern Europe

a. Remained more oppressive

b. Prussia remained militaristic and authoritarian for years

i. Though technically emperor shared power with legislature

c. Russia – tsar continued to be all-powerful

i. Serfdom kept people down – inefficient and kept economy back

vi. Revolution of 1848

1. Massive disturbance that shook every country of Europe

2. Underlying causes

a. Impatience with over three decades of reactionary (conservative) rule

b. Social and economic negative effects of Industrial Revolution

c. Growth and strength of nationalism

d. Long series of economic downturns and bad harvests – “Hungry Forties”

i. Irish Potato Famine – best-known, most deadly

3. Events

a. France – Citizen King Louis Philippe refuses reform demands

i. Revolts result – Napoleon’s nephew – Louis Napoleon – takes over

ii. Metternich – “Everytime France sneezed, Europe caught cold”

b. Ideas spread to rest of Europe

i. Only Britain (liberal) and Russia (ultra autocratic) weren’t effected

ii. Revolution broke out lasting months

c. Eventually all revolutions crushed or faded away

4. Effects

a. Forced king of Prussia, emperor of Austria to grant constitutional reforms

b. Demonstrated power of nationalism

c. Laid the groundwork for unification of Germany and Italy

d. Political, social and economic issues of people HAVE to be met

e. Haiti

i. Impetus/Causes

1. Appeal of Enlightenment ideals to creoles and mulattoes

2. French Revolution as inspiration to slaves

3. Success of American Revolution – maybe timing was right

a. Revolts/uprisings before, but they always failed

b. Now…Europe in chaos with rise and fall of Napoleon - distracted

i. Rebellious leaders opportunity to assert themselves

4. French mercantilist policy

a. exported coffee, sugar, cocoa, indigo from Haiti

b. few large plantations with hundreds of thousands of slaves

i. By 1800, 90% of population slave

ii. Stages

1. Slave insurrection of 1791

a. Toussaint L’Ouverture – former slave

2. Britain and Spain send troops; slaves and French join to oust them

3. At the end of civil war, slaves freed and in power; still a French colony

4. 1802, troops under Napoleon sent to end rule of former slaves

5. Defeat of the French by rebels and disease

a. Haitians capable fighters

b. Yellow fever wipes out soldiers

c. L’Ouverture captured and imprisoned in France

d. Napoleon gives up attempt to reconquer Haiti

iii. Outcome

1. Independence declared in 1804

a. Jacques Dessalines – also slave – governor-general for life

b. Haiti first independent nation in Latin America

2. Civil war among rival factions

3. Independent republic established in 1820

iv. Long term effects

1. Napoleon chose to abandon effort to maintain French colonies in North America

2. Sold vast Louisiana Territory to US for bargain

a. Gave US control of the N. American continent

b. Brought about major shift in global power – enter US

f. Latin American Wars of Independence

i. Causes

1. Growing sense of national identity – same as US 2. Local resentment of Spanish/Portuguese economic policies – same as US 3. Frustration of American born Creole upper and middle class a. Would never be seen as equal to European born rulers 4. Spark/catalyst was Napoleon a. Confusion over who was ruling b. Perfect opportunity to take advantage ii. Political difficulties of 19th century Latin America 1. Freedom alone did not bring about good government, social justice, health economy 2. Political breakdown – instead of a few states, many independent smaller states 3. Failure of constitutional rule a. Based on Napoleonic Law, US and French revolutions b. But…imposed artificially on Latin America c. Because there was no tradition of constitutions, civil liberties, political right i. It all just became words…red alert – consider connection to Iraq 4. Prevalence of dictatorial/military rule a. Caudillos – military/political strongmen i. personal charisma, military force and/or oppression b. Reformers and liberals try to change, but doesn’t happen iii. Economic backwardness 1. Hundreds of years of shaping toward merely extracting natural resources 2. Emphasized monoculture – one major crop – or a few crops 3. Created condition that required importing finished goods 4. Required large reserves of slaves/cheap labor to survive5. Failure to diversify economies means plantation owners need to recreate conditions to turn a profit6. Slow to modernize/industrialize iv. Social and Racial Divisions 1. Social inequality persisted regardless of laws 2. People of mixed race, Indians, blacks victims of informal prejudice 3. Economic income gap only worsened in 1800s 4. Slavery even continued into 1800s in Brazil and Cuba v. Huge foreign influence persisted 1. United States sets up sphere of influence 2. Europeans either install or influence who will be leaderf. Mexico (Revolution #1) – 1810>1820 i. Impetus/Causes 1. Revolution in Haiti 2. Distraction of Spain by its war with France ii. Stages 1. El Grito de Dolores! Call to arms by priest a. Miguel Hidalgo – Creole priest – sympathized with Spanish abused b. led mestizos and Native Americans in rebellion in 1810 c. Easily put down by Spanish – revolt – Hidalgo killed 2. Fighting continued under new leader, killed in 1815; some scattered fighting a. Jose Morelos – picked up where Hidalgo left off b. Fought the loyalists a. Landowners turned against when he claimed redistributing land b. 1815 Morelos executed 3. 1821 conservative creole joins with rebels and declares Mexico independent empire 4. 1823 emperor overthrown by liberals 5. 1824 republic created iii. Outcome/Effects 1. First rebellions demanded reforms such as abolition of slavery 2. Lack of support from creoles for insurrection; collapsed 3. Under republic, after years of turmoil, little change for ordinary mestizos/Natives 4. French occupation 5. Reforms instituted under Benito Juares g. Mexico (Revolution #2) – 1910-1917 i. Impetus/Causes1. Long dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz2. Unequal distribution of wealth: a few wealthy landowners and mass of desperately poor peasants, factory workers, miners3. Liberal reformers ii. Stages1. Demand for free elections; Diaz resigns2. Succeeded by Francisco Madero as president; murdered after two years3. Civil War: Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata4. 1917 election – Venustiano Carranza as president iii. Outcome/effects 1. Constitution of 1917 still in effect a. Broke up large landholdings b. Nationalized ownership of natural resources and Church property c. Restricted religion d. Provided for minimum wage e. Extended suffrage to all males h. China i. Impetus/Causes 1. Increasing power of foreign nations 2. Defeat in Sino-Japanese war in 1895 3. Spread of reform ideas among Western-educated Chinese 4. Discontent of poor rural peasants 5. Grant of power to provincial governments by Qing in an effort to stem uprisings ii. Stages 1. Abortive rebellions in late 1800s 2. Leadership of Dowager Empress Cixi a. Concubine that “ruled” for nephew into adulthood b. More oppressive rule i. Opposed all reform – pro-Western treasonii. Even arrested nephew/killed reformers when they tried “Hundred Days Reform” c. Outlying possessions slipped away – Tibet, Gobi Desert, Mongolia 2. Chinese Revolution of 1911 a. Provincial secessions b. Declaration of republic 3. Empire under Yuan shih-K’ai 4. Years of civil war and chaos 5. Establishment of republic in 1927 under Nationalist/Kuomintang Party iii. Outcome/effects 1. Abdication of Qing (Manchu) emperor in 1912 2. Yuan declares self emperor – dies in 1916 3. Warlords in power across China 4. Unification of much of China begun under Sun Yat-sen a. Sun Yat-sen – father of modern China i. United a number of opposition groups – Revolutionary Alliance ii. Military takeover that would become constitutional democracy iii. People’s Principles 1. Nationalism – opposition to Manchu Rule 2. Democracy 3. People’s Livelihood iv. Actually in America when revolt started b. Chinese Republic – 1912 – Sun as president i. Nationalist Party – Kuomintang ii. 1st time in history ruled not by imperial dynasty/foreign conqueror 1. Politician brought to power by popular action iii. Sun eventually forced to step down iv. Civil war resultsb. Aided by Soviets 5. Chiang Kai-shek successor to Sun a. Leads nationalist republic 6. Fight for control of China with Communists under Mao Zedong i. Latin America i. Venezuela 1. Causea. Disputed authority – Napoleon appoints brother Joseph Bonaparte to Spanish throne i. Who to follow – Spanish or French? 2. Events a. Simon Bolivar – Venezuelan leader i. Enlightened educated – traveled to Europe/United States ii. Establishes national congress iii. Royalists – defenders of crown – declare war b. Bolivar wins – envisions United States like South America i. Gran Colombia results – Columbia, Ecuador, Venezuela ii. Other nations become independendent ii. Argentina 1. Cause a. Disputed authority – see French/Spanish issue above 2. Events a. Jose de San Martin – American-born Spaniard (Creole) i. Officer in Spanish army defects and leads rebelsb. Joins with Bernardo O’Higgins of Chile c. Take revolution through Argentina, Chile, Peru d. By 1820s, huge chunk of South America freed from Spanish rule iii. Brazil 1. Cause a. Napoleon invaded – Portuguese king – John VI flees to Brazil i. Sets up Portuguese government from Brazil ii. 1821 – Napoleon defeated, so John returns to Portugal iii. But…leaves behind his son Pedro to rule 2. Events a. Pedro was 23, spend entire life in Brazil b. Declares independence for Brazil and makes himself emperor c. 1831 Pedro gives power to sequel Pedro II – rules most of 19th centuryi. So…Brazil had early advantage of stable monarchy/gov’t through independenceii. Accomplishments 1. Abolished slavery in 1888 a. Angers landowning class – they revolt in 1889 b. Set up a republic 2. Major exporter of coffee iv. Effects of Latin American independence movements 1. Europe booted out of vast chunks of American continents during 50 year period 2. But…independence not accompanied by widespread freedom a. Slavery still existed for decades b. Peasants still worked on huge plantations owned by few landowners c. Middle class/merchant class didn’t emerge d. Enlightenment ideas didn’t spread beyond landowning class 3. Why weren’t changes in South America? a. Catholic Church remained very powerful in Latin America i. Many priests fought for peasants, some martyred selves ii. But…Church hierarchy wanted to maintain status quo iii. Church – one of largest landowners in Latin America b. Economies largely dependent on Europe i. Still participated in European mercantilism ii. Specialized in a few cash crops 1. Didn’t diversify – similar to US South iii. Exported almost exclusively to Europe 4. Exceptions a. Chile diversified economy fairly successfully b. Brazil and Argentina had some social reforms/broadened economies i. Middle class results j. Russia a. Keeps control over vast territory by giving absolute power to czars 1. Majority of people serfs with no rights 2. Alexander I and Nicholas I used secret police to squash rebellions/reform b. Reforms 1. 1860s Alexander II – Emancipation Edict – abolish serfdom a. Serfs given small plots of land i. Had to give huge payments to the government ii. Difficult to improve situation iii. Some move to cities to work in industries – harsh conditions 2. Beginning of some arts flourish a. Tolstoy – Anna Karenina and War and Peace b. Dostoyevsky – The Brothers Karamazov c. Tchaikovsky – Swan Lake and Nutcracker 3. Russification – all Russians had to learn Russian language/convert to Orthodoxy a. Anyone who didn’t comply was persecuted – especially Jews 4. Nicholas II doesn’t react to revolution a. Socialists began to organize b. Tried to rally Russians around the flag, but humiliated against Japanese 5. Moderates march on czar’s palace peacefully – ask for reform a. Czar sends his troops against protesters – Bloody Sunday – 1905 6. In response, Czar attempts legislative reforms a. Appoints Prime Minister – Peter Stolypin b. Creates Duma i. Has no real power ii. Everytime they’re about to make a change, czar disbands k. India 1. Educating native elite backfired a. Larger numbers of these educated agitated for freedom b. Saw that it was hypocritical for British not to apply liberties to India 2. Indian National Congress – 1885 a. English speaking, educated members of upper class b. Most influential – Mohandas K. Gandhi – 1869 i. Lived in S. Africa from 1893-1915 a. Defended rights of Indian workers living under apartheid ii. Returned to India as central figure in freedom movement a. Policy of nonviolent resistance Major independence movementsLatin American independence movementsMexico’s revolution uniqueRevolution of mestizos and Native AmericansOther Latin American revolutionsLed by wealthy, educated creolesNewly independent nations replaced governing peninsulares with elite creolesLittle changed for the majority of the peopleMestizosMulattoesNative AmericansCauses/ImpetusSimon Bolivar and Jose de San Martincreoles both familiar with Enlightenment writingsb. Spain engaged in wars with Napoleon 5. Stages a. Between 1808>1824 all Spanish colonies became independent nations 6. Outcome/Effects a. Bitter rivalries for power led to civil wars and more turmoil and sufferingb. Little social, political, economic reform accomplished in former Spanish coloniesc. Legacy of caudillo, strong man/military ruler, as head of governmentNew political ideasRise of nationalismConsequences of Napoleonic era was intensified nationalismFeelings of connection to one’s own home, region, language, cultureMarxismLiberalismConservatismAnarchismRise of nation-statesUnificationsItaly and Germany were still feudalCenter of warfare among the European powersItaly and Germany eventually unify which changes balance of power2. Italy a. Status before unification i. Mid-19th century – tangle of foreign controlled small kingdoms a. Austria has North b. France has Rome and Papal States c. Spain has two Sicilies in the South d. Only Sardinia controlled by Italians b. Events toward unification i. Victor Emmanuel II – king of Sardinia + Count Camillo Cavour a. Both Sardinians push nationalism ii. First Cavour sides with Europeans to kick out Austrians iii. Giuseppi Garibaldi – Italian nationalist kicks out Spain iv. By 1861 most of Spain unified under Victor Emmanuel v. Sided with Prussia to push out Austria vi. France withdraws in 1870 c. Effects i. Some still upset that parts of Austria and France aren’t Italian too ii. Tough to unify culturally since it had developed regionally iii. But…now able to assert itself on the world stage a. Impacts Europe in the next century3. Germany a. Status before unificationi. German and Austrian Empire provinces not united since Holy Roman Empire a. After Peace of Westphalia – Austria/Prussia dominatedii. Prussia under Frederick the Great pushed Industrial Revolution a. Supported education – talented workforce b. Events toward unificationiii. William I in 1861 appoints Otto von Bismarck prime minister a. Goal – build the military b. Consolidating the region under Prussia’s authority i. Defeated Austria, convinced Europe to not help ii. More wars to bring in other German regions iii. Brings in Catholic German states through war 1. Unite against France in 1870iv. King William II then emperor of the German Empire a. Second Reich – “second empire” b. First Reich – “Holy Roman Empire” c. Effects i. Germany quickly industrializes a. Strong economic/political power ii. William II forced Bismarck to give up role a. Becomes undisputed emperor in 1888 b. Built huge navy c. Pursued colonial ambitions in Africa and Asia iii. Germany becomes world power a. By 1914, thought they could take on anyone Movements of political reformGradual Move Toward Representative Government2nd half of century moved toward representative govtWhy?Industrialization, modernization, urbanization, population growthToo many issues for one man to handle3. Even in less democratic nations, power still spread to advisers, agencies, ministries and institutionsReform and Democracy in Great BritainLiberal and Conservative parties agreed to expand suffrageSecond and Third Reform Acts – 1867/1885 – universal suffrageProblems still existedAristocracy trying to retain privilegesGrowing middle class has ambitions of higher statusEnormous working class striving for equalityLabour Party ends up replacing liberal (middle class) partyd. Irish home rule i. Should North – split Catholic/Protestant remain British or Irish ii. Should Ireland be set freeDemocracy in FranceLouis Napoleon renamed himself Napoleon IIICancelled out some of the post-1848 libertiesDeposed after losing Franco-Prussian war of 18712. 1871 onward – France becomes democratic republic – universal suffrage a. Fourth Republic b. Still had problems i. Corruption and financial scandal ii. Dreyfus Affair – Jewish officer accused of selling secrets to Germ a. Exposed anti-Semitism b. Pitted left vs. right – innocent vs. guiltyUnification of Italy and GermanyShowed power of nationalism – more powerful than demand for democracyUnified through combination of war and diplomatic intrigue/maneuveringGaribaldi – ItalyVon Bismarck - GermanyAustria-HungaryMore conservative, but moved away from autocracy1861 Emperor Franz Josef shared power with parliamentStruggled on how much power to give to ethnic minoritiesCzechs, Poles, Slovaks, Croats, Serbs, Italians, HungariansMinorities want autonomy – self-determination1867 – Largest minority forced Austrians to give powerAugsleich – “compromise” – becomes Austria-HungaryGermanyHad to make concessions to growing working classTrade unions and socialism growing in power/influence2. Universal suffrage for Reichstag a. But…upper class votes weighed more than lower-class votes3. Laws for employment benefits a. unemployment insurance b. disability insurance c. pensions d. shorter work day e. Some workers actually better off than western worldRussiaRemained most autocraticNo constitution, and until 1905 – no elected bodyFollowing embarrassing defeat in Crimean War – 1853-856Tsar Alexander II forced to implement liberal reformsModernize RussiaEmancipation of serfs in 1861iii. Lightened censorshipiv. Widened powers of local governmentv. 1881 – Alexander II assassinated by radical terrorists b. Future tsars reversed policies 4. 1905 – Uprising forces Nicholas II to share power with Duma a. But…Nicholas II ignored or disbanded Duma – neutered viii. Japan 1. Tokugawa Shogunate in the 18th century a. Ruled by Tokugawa clan – seized control in 1600s b. Technically authority with emperor, reality with shogunate c. Top of society – samurai – warrior class d. Early successes i. Helped centralize Japan ii. Transformed from warring collection of states to peaceful country e. Problems i. Highly dictatorial ii. Stratified society with no chance for social mobility iii. Few personal freedoms – people left out of politics iv. Isolated self from rest of the world a. Only relations with Korea, some China, Dutch – Nagasaki 2. Meiji Restoration a. Meiji Restoration of 1868 began Japan’s modern age i. Irony – rebellion anti-Western in nature, but a. Must embrace West to survive/compete ii. Revolution from above a. Meiji’s govt radically alters politics, economics, social b. Politics i. Abolishes feudalism a. Samurai have positions of power b. No hereditary privileges c. Stop payment to samurai d. Samurai couldn’t wear swords ii. Formal law code – Civil Code of 1898 drawn up iii. Constitution of 1890 – elected parliament – Diet a. Suffrage quite low – 5% - property qualifications b. Emperor still has power over Diet c. Created oligarchy – rule by Meiji and advisors d. Less restrictive, but hardly representative e. Women ignored – second class citizens 1. But…had some power with new working jobs iv. Regional governments now run by prefects – state appointed c. Economics i. Modern efficiency – peasant #s decrease, productivity increases ii. Industrialization a. Sent young members of upper class to train in W. Europe 1. Engineering, economics, military b. Ministry of Industry in 1870 c. State banks gave financing to growing industries d. New railroads, steamships, ports, canals built e. Zaibatsu – state sponsored huge corporations f. Encouraged private enterprise iii. Negatives of Industrialization a. Taxes for farmers goes up b. Working conditions for laborers goes down 1. Nagasaki – temps. up to 130, shot for escaping c. Labor unions forbidden d. Social i. Rigid social hierarchy of Tokugawa ended ii. Access to political positions increasingly based on merit a. Civil service exam iii. Middle class power grows a. No longer negative stigma about trade and artisanship iv. Negatives for lower class a. Farmers taxed heavily b. Industrial workers live/work in horrible conditions v. But…for lower class a. state funded education b. now allowed to serve in military c. population skyrocketed – 35 million 1873 > 55 in 1918DemocracyRiseLimitationsReformWomenWomen’s movementsFounder – Mary Wolstonecraft – English writerA Vindication of the Rights of Women – 1792Equal rights – education, political, economic pursuitsb. France – playwright Olympes de Gouges – argues for suffrage 2. “Women Question” – what is their sphere/role a. “cult of true womanhood” i. Virtues of submissiveness, piety, domesticity, modesty, femininity b. Feminists i. Women were individuals with different strengths and abilities ii. Permitted to develop them without social restrictions 3. Early phases of reform a. 1830s in US/Europe b. Focused on reforming family/divorce laws – own property/divorce c. Frustrated – lack of civil rights made it difficult ot argue for other causes i. slavery, temperance, improving schools, helping poor d. Jobs – teaching/nursing – women’s sphere e. Building social welfare institutions i. Providing aid to orphaned children/poor 4. Next phase – mid century a. Pushed for suffrage b. Led by women of the upper class c. US suffragettes called for better working conditions/right to vote d. Took leadership roles in banning alcohol, child welfare, labor reform 5. Not granted right to vote until after World War I a. Early exceptions – Norway, Finland, handful of US states in the WestRacismOverlaps between nations and empiresVII. Rise of Western DominanceEconomicTechnological, economic military rise of the WestAltered the balance of global powerIndustrialization replaced agriculture as largest, most important sector of economyBegan in England 18th and 19th century through Europe, later rest of the worldd. Dominant mode of economic organization – free-market, laissez faire capitalism i. Commerce and banking – foundations of money-based economy – not land-basede. Transformed class structures i. Aristocracy based on land and family prestige faded ii. Those employed in agriculture shrank iii. Middle class grew tremendously, gained great wealth, diversified iv. New lower class – industrial working class was bornf. Industrialization led to urbanization – cities grew in size, more cities establishedg. First decades of industrialization painful for lower classes i. Working conditions poor, wages were low ii. Over time, industrialization greatly raised the average properity of a society’s population a. Even lower classes benefit over timeh. Non-Western worlds adopt industrialization in varying ways i. Some European imperial powers introduced to colonies ii. Rulers of free non-Western nations tried to impose from abovei. Slavery still key to 18th/19th century world economy i. Africa primary victim of slave trading ii. East African and Atlantic Slave Trade continued into the 1870s/1880sj. Fall of mercantilism, rise of capitalism i. Economies more likely to flourish if left alone to function freely a. Need competition, free trade, laws of supply and demand create greater wealth b. Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations – 1776 – “invisible hand” of supply and demandk. “dismal science” – negative view of capitalism i. Thomas Malthus – Essay on Population – 1799 – a. Population growth led to poverty b. War, disease, starvation – necessary to control population ii. David Ricardo – “iron law of wages” a. Employer will pay lowest possible wage to make money b. If supply of labor goes up, salaries will dropl. Socialism, Marxism and Communism i. Socialism – economic competition is inherently unfair and leads to injustice/inequality a. Utopian socialists – with good planning and regulation – everyone can be happy ii. Marxism – more radical socialism – Communist Manifesto a. History always driven by class struggle between upper class/lower class i. Karl Marx – all history result of class struggle - bourgeoisie vs. proletariat a. middle class vs. working class c. Workers would overthrow which would lead to communism – revolution necessary i. Would eventually revolt and form “dictatorship of the proletariat” a. Would ensure social and political freedom ii. No longer a need for the state – eventually wither away iii. Result – pure communism – classless society iii. Communism a. Ideally – perfect justice, social equality and plentyPoliticalBroad trendsWorld affairs determined by policy choices in EuropeUnited States broke away from English rule, went on to dominate AmericasSpanish/Portuguese colonies freed themselves of European ruleEastern Question – gradual decline of the Ottoman Empire presented Europe with choicesBetween 1814 > 1914 – 35% to 85% of European control of habitable territoryJapan only non-Western nation to develop effective, modern colonial empireNew nations of Germany and Italy createdTensions over diplomacy, nationalism, competition for overseas possessions led to alliancesb. Political developments i. greater popular representation in government and politics a. American Revolution and French Revolution were precedents ii. During 1800s, especially after 1848 – Europe and West politics more representative a. Bureaucracies and parliamentary bodies becoming increasingly important b. More important than arbitrary will of rulers/monarchs iii. Other parts of the world slower in moving from traditional monarchies/oligarchies a. Japan/Ottoman Empire developed parliamentary monarchies by 20th century b. Latin America had parliamentary monarchies in theory i. But usually slipped into dictatorship or military rule iv. Much of the non-Western world spent the 19th century under European colonial dominationc. Middle class representation i. Through revolt and reform were able to gain more political and economic rightsd. Working class radicalism i. Most desperate option – radical forms of agitation – socialism, communism, anarchism a. Radicalized workers led by intellectuals ii. Trade unions a. At first, illegal – in danger of arrest, injury – especially if went on strike b. Government oftentimes supported corporation c. Left leaning, but not as far as socialism, communismSocialCulturalStarting in West, scientific, secular worldview became paramountTechnological/scientific advancements of Industrial Revolution accelerated processTheories of Charles Darwin accelerated processEvolution is a random process – physical changes that increase survival passed onCommon ancestor of humans and apesErode faith in traditional religion and encourage more secular view of the worldb. Greater access to public education increased through 1800s i. Literacy rates rosec. Tremendous movement of peoples i. Massive waves of emigration from Europe and China > N. and S. America ii. United States preferred destination, but also to Canada, Argentina, Chiled. Nationalism became an incredibly powerful cultural attitude in Europe ii. By end of 1800s nationalist movements more prevalent in non-Western parts of the world a. Especially those dominated by Europeans, and educated by Europeanse. Modernist thought and culture – late 1800s/early 1900s i. Diversity and innovation ii. Artists broke rules of traditional culture and experimented with variety of styles a. Expressionism, Cubism, abstraction iii. Time of crisis and uncertainty in art iv. Fridrich Nietzche a. “God is Dead” b. All systems of morality valueless in the materialistic modern age v. Science of psychology to understand human mindf. Adopted Western behavior i. Japan adopted – fashion, manners, calendar, metric systemArtistica. Non-Western world began to adopt many of the artistic and literary forms of the West i. Especially the print culture and writing styles, but also architecture ii. Styles from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East had influence on West a. Especially painting, sculpture, decor b. Europe and Americas, pace of cultural change sped up considerably i. End of the 1800s, new artistic and literary trends were emerging at rapid rate ii. New artistic and literary trends were breaking rules and defying conventions c. Romanticism i. Originated with German authors and French philosopher Rousseau ii. Backlash/reaction to logic/reason-oriented outlook of Enlightenment iii. Most important – emotion/passion a. Self-realization of the individual, heroism, love of the natural world d. Realism i. Rejected Romanticism’s idealized dramatic outlook ii. Focused on sober, critical view of life iii. Details of everyday existence a. Social problems – poverty, social hypocrisy, class injustice

iv. Looked at psychological workings of charaters’ minds

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