The west before 1300 notes Europe History study guide chapter summary

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The west before 1300 notes Europe History study guide chapter summary

Introduction: The West Before 1300
Chapter Overview

Why we study history

We naturally want to know how we came to be who we are and how the world we live in came to be what it is.
History provides insight into present human behavior

Human history overview

People lived by hunting and gathering for hundreds of thousands of years
Only 10,000 years ago did humans learn to cultivate plants, herd animals, and make airtight pottery to store food.
River valley civilizations developed just 5,000 years ago which led to better harvest and ultimately increased populations

These river valley civilizations—ie Nile, Indus, Tigris/Euphrates—invented writing, metallurgy, and commerce.
Cities and complex religion took form.
Kings, considered to be representatives of the gods or to be divine themselves, emerged as rulers who formed large armies to protect their power.

Section One: Early Humans and their Culture

Section Overview

Important dates in the history of the Earth

Scientist believe Earth to be six billion years old
Creatures, similar to humans, first appeared three to five million years ago.
Homo sapiens probably emerged 200,000 years ago

Earliest remains of modern humans date to 90,000 years ago

Humans as cultural beings

Culture (d)—the ways of living built up by a group and passed from one generation to another; it includes behavior, material things, ideas, institutions, and beliefs.

The Paleolithic Age

Lasted from the earliest use of stone tools, nearly 1,000,000 years ago to about 10,000BCE
People existed as hunters, fishers, and gatherers
Humans learned to use sophisticated stone tools, materials like wood, and to control fire
Language developed so they could pass on what they learned
Division of labor

Men hunted, fished, made tools and weapons and fought against other families, tribes, and clans
Women gathered nuts, berries, and wild grains, wove baskets, and made clothing

Women probably discovered how to plant and care for seeds leading to the Age of Agriculture—the Neolithic revolution.

The Neolithic Age

About 10,000BCE, parts of the Middle East began to shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies.
Invention of pottery made it possible to store surplus liquid and dry foods
Cloth came to be made from flax and wool
Built permanent buildings near the best fields
About 4,000BCE in modern-day Iraq, major urban centers, called civilization appeared

Urbanism, technology, writing, religion, laws, division of labor, and trade are defining characteristics of civilizations

During this era, someone discovered how to smelt tin and copper to make bronze, a stronger and more useful metal.

Section Two: Early Civilizations to about 1000 BCE

Mesopotamian Civilization

Emerged in the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers known as the Fertile Crescent

Sumerians controlled the southern part of the valley (Sumer) close to the head of the Persian Gulf by 3,000BCE
Another group—known as Semitics—settled upstream

Semitic peoples established a capital at Akkad, near a later city known as Babylon

The Sumerians were absorbed by the Akkadians whose empire came to be known as Assyria
By 1900BCE, another Semitic group called the Amorites gained control of the region and established Babylon.
Babylonian kingdom collapsed after the Hittites and Kassites invaded from the north and east.

After pillaging, the Hittites returned home to Asia Minor
The Kassites remained and ruled Mesopotamia for five centuries

Egyptian Civilization

The Nile River, surrounded by desert, produced arable land as it flooded and receded to furnish mud that could produce two crops per year

Egyptians crafted and maintained sophisticated irrigation ditches to preserve the river’s water and agricultural prosperity ensued

Geographic isolation

The Sahara Desert to the west and Red Sea to the east made it difficult for invaders to reach Egypt

3,000 years of ancient Egyptian history

Menes united upper and lower Egypt

Unification and centralization was necessary to control irrigation

Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BCE

Periods in ancient Egyptian history

Old Kingdom (2700-2200 BCE)

Pharaohs reign with absolute power

Carefully regulated the peasantry and taxed it heavily
Believed to be a living god and, therefore, government was one aspect of religion.
Established the capital at Memphis

First Intermediate Period in Egyptian history (2200-2052BCE)

Power of kings waned during this period and nobles gained more independence and influence
Governors of different regions—called nomes—gained hereditary claim to their offices

Middle Kingdom

Nomarchs—or governors—of Thebes in northern Egypt gained control of the country and established the Middle Kingdom about 2052
Restored pharaohs power over all of Egypt
Encouraged trade and expanded Egyptian influence into Palestine and Ethiopia
Middle Kingdom disintegrated and nobles gained control

Second Intermediate Period

Decentralization made Egypt vulnerable to invasion
Hyksos came from the east and conquered Egypt around 1700BCE

Hyksos—likely a coalition of Semitic peoples from Palestine and Syria

New Kingdom

Around 1575BCE a dynasty from Thebes drove out the Hyksos and began the New Kingom
Pharaohs assembled large armies and sought to establish an empire
Extended power into Palestine, Syria, and beyond the upper Euphrates River
While attempting to expand, Egypt was weakened by continuous conflict with the Hittites in Asia Minor and became victim of foreign invasion and rule

Palestine and the Religion of the Israelites

Three great religions of the modern world outside the Far East—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—originated in Palestine.
Israelites in Palestine

History of Israelites must be approached with some caution as their story is a complicated collection of historical narrative, wisdom literature, poetry, law, and religious witness much of which is collected in the Hebrew Bible
Story of the Israelites settlement in Palestine

The patriarch Abraham came from Ur in Mesopotamia about 1900BCE and wandered west to tend his flocks in the land of Canaanites
Some of his people settled there and others continued to Egypt
By the thirteenth century BCE, led by Moses, they had left Egypt and wandered in the desert until they reached Canaan
They established a civilization that reached its height under David and Solomon in the tenth century BCE
Solomon’s sons did not maintain the unity of the kingdom, and it split into two parts: Israel in the north and Judah in the south

Rise of great empires to the east led to disaster for Israelites

Assyrians conquered the northern kingdom of Israel in 722BCE
Judah, the southern kingdom, fell to the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II in 586BCE

Babylonians destroyed the great temple built by Solomon and took thousands of Jews back to Babylon as slaves
When Persia conquered Babylon, the Jews were allowed to return to their homeland thus ending this period known as the Babylonian Captivity of the Jews

The area of the old kingdom of the Jews in Palestine, however, was dominated for 2,500 years until the establishment of the state of Israel in CE 1948.

Judaism and monotheism

First to develop a religious system based on the existence of one universal God
Fundamental tenants of Judaism

God made a covenant with Abraham
God is a severe but just judge
Ritual and sacrifice is not enough to achieve his approval

People must be righteous, and God himself appears to be bound to act righteously

Role of the prophets

prophets explained that the misfortunes of the Jews came as a result of their misdeeds, but they promised the redemption of the Jews if they repented.
Prophets spoke of a Messiah (deliverer)

Christianity emerged from this tradition as it maintains that Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah

Section Three: The Greeks

Section Overview

Western civilization as a distinct culture began with the Greeks
Greek values and lifestyle spread across the Mediterranean basin and impacted the Romans
Minoan civilization on the island of Crete influenced the Greeks

Minoan civilization was literate and built extensive bureaucracy that served the king

Greeks established cities along the shores of the Mediterranean which put them in close contact with the Near East

The Polis

Polis is often defined as a “city-state” but this definition is misleading

All Greek poleis began as agricultural communities; some morphed into cities but not all.
Most thought of the polis as a community of relatives
Originally the word polis referred to a citadel (ie, Acropolis in Athens or the Acrocorinth in Corinth)
Poleis were usually built inland to avoid pirate raids
Eventually, the polis grew to be the center of Greek social life distinguished by conversation and argumentation in the open air

By 750BCE the institution of monarchy disappeared and the polis was ruled as an aristocratic republic
During the eighth century BCE, the Greeks expanded far beyond the Aegean Sea and established poleis from Spain to the Black Sea

They came into sustained contact with the Near East where they learned arts and borrowed a writing system from the Semitic scripts and added vowels to create the first true alphabet

Alphabet was easy to learn and promoted a literate society

Impact of colonization on Greeks

Contact with others fostered a sense of Panhellenic spirit

Greek religion

Pantheon

Consisted of twelve gods who lived on Mount Olympus

Notable shrines to gods

Statue of Zeus at Olympia
Delphi for Apollo
Isthmus of Corinth for Poseidon

Held athletic contests in honor of the gods

Sparta

Spartans created a military society in order to maintain dominance over helots, the peasants over whom they ruled
Spartan men

At age seven Spartan boys were taken from their mothers and trained
At age twenty they entered the army and lived in barracks until the age of thirty

If a Spartan decided to marry, he visited his wife infrequently or in stealth

At age thirty, they became full citizens
Compulsory military service ended at age 60

Spartan women

Educated to subordinate themselves to service of the state through motherhood and child rearing

Spartan constitution

Contained elements of monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy

Two kings with limited power
Council of elders who had important judicial functions
Spartan assembly consisted of all males over the age of thirty

Five annually elected ephors controlled foreign policy, presided over the assembly, and guarded against helot rebellions

Athens

Athens was a typical aristocratic polis until the sixth century BCE

State governed by the Areopagus, a council of nobles named for the hill on which it met

594BCE constitution changed by Solon to move Athens toward democracy

Expanded citizenship to include all males, even immigrant craftsmen
Divided citizens into four classes according to wealth
Established a Council of Four Hundred to check the power of the Areopagus
Created a popular assembly

Solon’s constitution was overthrown by Pisistratus, who established his own rule; his son, Hippias, was deposed in 510BCE.
Clisthenes instituted another series of reforms that implemented real Athenian democracy

Created the deme, a political unit that replaced clan brotherhood and weeded out a system in which noble birth dominated
Established a Council of Five Hundred which dealt with foreign policy and finances
All final decision rested with the assembly composed of all adult male citizens
These reforms nurtured strong patriotism

In 490 BCE, Darius, king of Persia, attempted to restore the tyrant Hippias as leader of Athens.

Athenians, led by Miltiades, resisted and won a victory at Marathon

In 480 BCE, the Persians under Xerxes again attempted to conquer Greece

Greek city-states responded by forming a defensive league

Sparta, as leader of the land forces, held off the Persians at the battle of Thermopylae
Athens led Greek naval forces to a great victory at Salamis

Two important developments occurred following the defeat of the Persians

Pericles revised the constitution of Athens to make it even more democratic as every decision had to be approved by a popular assembly of people, not representatives
There was no police force, standing army, or any other way to coerce the people.

The Peloponnesian War

second development following the defeat of the Persians was the splitting of the Greek world into two spheres of influence, one dominated by Sparta and the other Athens.
story of the Peloponnesian War was recorded by the historian Thucydides.

the war began in 431BCE and ended in 404BCE
farmland was ravaged, crops and homes destroyed, and commerce was interrupted.
people abandoned patriotism and morality

In the end, Sparta defeated Athens

The upheaval of the war damaged the sense of community to the common good required for life in the polis.

Greek Political Philosophy and the Crisis of the Polis

Socrates (469-399BCE)

questioned and examined people about their understanding of human behavior
disliked democracy as he believed it relied on amateurs to make important political decisions
he was condemned to death in 399 BCE on charges of bringing new gods into the city and corrupting the youth

Plato (429-347BCE)

most important of Socrates’ associates
first political philosopher
founded the Academy, a center of philosophical investigation as a school for training statesmen and citizens
Plato’s view of the polis

believed the virtues of a polis were order, harmony, and justice
goal of the polis was to produce good people
only a few philosophers whose training, character, and intellect allowed them to see reality were fit to rule

Plato outlined the training of these leaders in his book The Republic

According to Plato, the way to harmony was to destroy the causes of strife: private property, the family, or anything else that stood between the individual and his loyalty to the polis

Aristotle (384-322BCE)

Pupil of Plato
Founded his own school in Athens, the Lyceum

differed from the Academy as it s members took little interest in mathematics and instead were concerned with gathering, ordering, and analyzing all human knowledge

Aristotle’s method

began with observations of empirical evidence
to this evidence he applied reason and discovered inconsistencies or difficulties
next, he introduced metaphysical principles to explain the problems or to reconcile the inconsistencies

Believed in Ideas or Forms—transcendental concepts outside the experience of most people
Combined the practical analysis of political and economic realities with the moral and political purposes of the traditional defenders of the polis

The Empire of Alexander the Great

The conquest of the Greek poleis by the kingdom of Macedonia in the fourth century BCE is what brought their collapse.
Macedonians inhabited the land north of Thessaly

governed by a king chosen partly by descent and partly by the approval of the army
under Phillip II, Macedonia built a powerful army and moved steadily against the Greek cities

Battle of Chaeronea (338BCE)—Macedonian army defeated an alliance of Greek cities thus ending their freedom and autonomy
Phillip II was assassinated in 336BCE

Alexander the Great succeeded Phillip II

led his army across and conquered Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Persia, and Mesopotamia
he planned to build vast infrastructure of cities, roads and harbors but died of fever in 323 BCE at age 33.
His conquest spread Greek culture throughout the eastern Mediterranean

Section Four: Rome

The Republic and Expansion in the Mediterranean

Early years of Rome

Ruled by kings from 753 BCE until 509 BCE
The republic replaced the monarchy after nobles led a revolution

Republican government, dominated by the institution of an aristocratic Senate, endured for almost five centuries.
Roman expansion

by 265 BCE, the Romans had conquered most of central and southern Italy

many conquered people retained the rights of local self-government and could gain full citizenship if they moved to Rome

they did, however, follow Roman foreign policy and provided soldiers to serve in the Roman legions

some states became allies of Rome on the basis of treaties

Roman government placed colonies on some conquered lands and placed permanent settlements of veteran soldiers in the territory of the recently defeated enemies
Most of Rome’s allies remained loyalty in hope of achieving the status of full Roman citizenship

Battles with Carthage

First and Second Punic Wars (264-241BCE and 218-202BCE)

Rome emerged as the dominant power in the Mediterranean

Following the wars with Carthage, Rome moved on the lands to the east

By 168 BCE, the Romans effectively governed Greece as a protectorate

Rome established provinces in Sicily, Spain, Sardinia, and Corsica

they did not retain self-rule and the people were not Roman citizens, did not serve in the army, but rather subjects who paid tribute

Roman culture borrowed heavily from Greek culture (literature, religion, art, philosophy), but held Greek government in contempt

From Republic to Empire

Financial problems caused by overseas conquests led to a sharp divide between the rich and poor in Rome

Much of the farmland in Italy was destroyed in the Punic wars and more was bought up by nobles

many veterans returning from war found themselves landless and moved to large urban areas

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, who were brothers, attempted to carry out program of land redistribution

nobles violently resisted their policies and both were assassinated

Financial problems led to the practice whereby generals controlled the government

many generals grew famous from their conquests and appealed to the people

Marius (157-86 BCE)won many battles in North Africa and dominated politics for a while
Sulla (138-78 BCE) established a dictatorship after a series of military victories

two generals, Julius Cesar and Gnaeus Pompey, compete for power

they tried to share political power for a while but all cooperation broke down by 49 BCE
Cesar defied the Roman Senate by leading his army out of Gaul and across the Rubicon River
Cesar defeated the forces of Pompey and the Senate

Cesar governed Rome alone until his assassination in 44 BCE
Octavian, the nephew of Cesar, rallied Cesar’s army and engaged in a civil war

Octavian won the naval battle of Actium, and at age 32, stood as the master of the Mediterranean world

The Principate and the Empire

Octavian, well aware of his uncle’s fate, included elements of republicanism in his government to give the appearance that he was sharing power with the Senate a citizens of Rome

took the title princeps, or “first citizen”
the Senate gave him the title “Augustus” which carried connotations of veneration, majesty, and holiness

Historians speak of Rome’s first emperor as Augustus and of his regime as the Principate

Octavian united political and military power which made it possible for him to install rational, efficient, and stable government in the provinces for the first time
Principate of Augustus brought great prosperity

conquest in Egypt brought in wealth
Rome returned to small-scale farming as a result of the policy through which Augustus endowed veterans with small plots of fertile land

Late Republic and Augustan periods was a high period in Roman culture

Cicero (106-43BCE)—late Republic period

orator and poet who studied moral philosophy, ethics, politics, and law
believed in a world governed by divine and natural law that human reason could perceive and human institutions reflect

Vegil (70-19 BCE)

most important of Augustan poets
wrote Aeneid

national epic that glorified civic greatness represented by Augustus and the peace and prosperity he brought to Rome

Augustus’ successors came to be called imperator—from which comes our word emperor

some emperors—like Vespasian increased the dignity and prestige of the Senate—while others like Caligula, Nero, and Domitian, degraded the Senate and paraded their despotic power
provinces flourished economically and accepted Roman rule

legionnaires often married local women and settled in the provinces they conquered

emperors became deified
Administration of the provinces

Municipal charters vested power in the hands of local councils and magistrates elected from the local aristocracy

A shift in the notion of civic virtue occurred by the start of the second century

Whereas members of the upper classes had previously vied with one another for election to municipal offices, by the second century emperors had to force members of the ruling classes to accept public office.

This waning desire to serve arose, in large part, from the imperial practice of holding magistrates and local councilmen personally responsible for revenues due.

Financial problems surface by the start of the second century due to the rising costs of:

maintaining a large standing army
keeping the people of Rome happy with subsidized food and public entertainment
pay a large bureaucracy
wage wars to defend the frontiers against barbarian armies

Christianity

Jesus of Nazareth

life and message

born in Judea in the time of Augustus
great teacher who gained mass appeal among the poor
preached about love, charity, and humility

why he rubbed some the wrong way

criticized practices in Judaism
upper-classes feared his popularity among the poor

death

executed by Roman soldiers in Jerusalem probably in 30CE
his followers believed that he was resurrected three days after his death

Spread of Christianity

Paul of Tarsus—missionary responsible for spreading Christian beliefs to the whole eastern Mediterranean world and to Rome itself
Christianity had its greatest success in the cities among the poor and uneducated

Organization of Christianity

By the second century, a bishop emerged to lead Church activities in different cities

bishops extended their power outside cities to surrounding towns and country sides
Apostolic Succession

belief that the powers Jesus had given his original disciples were passed on from bishop to bishop through ordination

Canon of doctrine included the Old Testament, the Gospels, and the Epistles of Saint Paul, among other writings.

Rome became the most important center of Christianity by 200CE

Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

The Crisis of the Third Century

Persians pressed from the east and German tribes endangered the frontiers on the west and north
army no longer consisted of citizens but instead slaves, gladiators, barbarians, and brigands conscripted to fight
emperors could no longer afford to maintain armies and relied on the people of Rome to provide food, supplies, money, and labor
upper classes forced to serve as city administrators without pay

The Emperor Diocletian (CE. 284-305) responded to the crisis by dividing the empire into four administrative units, each with its own ruler and capital

Diocletian is also known for his policy of systematic persecution of Christians

Constantine (CE 306-337) reunited the empire in CE 330 and established his capital at Constantinople in the East

Constantinople became the center of a flourishing culture that we call Byzantine
Constantine championed the Christianity

After praying to the Christian God, he won the Battle of Milvian Bridge which led him to grant privileges to the Christian Church

The Western portion of the Roman Empire devolved into rural agrarianism and suffered from barbarian invasions

the villa became the basic unit of life
the coloni, small landholders who were original settlers, gave their services to the local magnates in return for economic assistance and protection
failure of the imperial authority to maintain roads and constant danger of robber bands slowed trade and communications

The Christian Church came to dominate western Europe

Christian philosophy—with a God who suffered, died, and resurrected—and fostered a sense of community, equality, and the promise of immortality, attracted many during this tumultuous time

Major barbarian victories that led to the collapse of the western part of the Roman empire

Battle of Adrianople (378 CE)--German tribes defeated the armies led by the emperor Valens
In 476, the Western Emperor Romulus was deposed and replaced by the barbarian Odoacer, a Ostrogoth chieftan.

Section Five: Europe Enters the Middle Ages

The Byzantine Empire

The eastern half of the Roman Empire endured after the fall of the West until 1453 when it fell to the Ottoman Empire
Between 324 and 632 the Byzantine Empire experienced a cultural golden age (ie. Code Justinian, Hagia Sophia)
Islamic armies began constantly attacks on it after the year 700
Emperor Leo III, by forbidding the display of images in eastern Christian churches, ignited a schism between western Roman Catholic and Byzantine Christianity.

The Rise of Islam

Muhammad (570-632), the founder of Islam (“submission”) received his call to be prophet at age forty.
Through a series of revelations, Allah revealed the Qur’an to Muhammad
Core Muslim beliefs and practices

prayer five times a day
generous alms giving
fasting during daylight hours for one month each year (Ramadan)
pilgrimage to Mecca

Conquests

By the middle of the eighth century, Muslims had conquered the southern and eastern Mediterranean coastline and occupied parts of Spain

Europeans grew suspicious of the expanding Islamic world

At Poitiers in 732, Charles Martel, the leader of the Franks, defeated an Arab army and ended the threat of Arab expansion into western Europe by way of Spain

New Importance of the Christian Church

Local bishops and cathedral chapters filled the vacuum of authority left by the removal of Roman governors.
The Church possessed an effective hierarchical administration staffed by the most educated men in Europe
Monasticism became the purest form of religious practice in the Middle Ages
The bishops of Rome made a claim to supremacy over all other clergymen which led to the development of the doctrine of “papal primacy.”

Charlemagne

Charlemagne, the king of the Franks, created a centralized empire in western Europe that included modern France, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, most of western Germany, much of Italy, parts of Spain, and the island of Corsica.
Charlemagne befriended the right people

he developed close ties with powerful nobles
Pope Leo II, who regarded Charlemagne as his protector, crowned him Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas Day in 800.

Administration of his empire

appointed counts to oversee districts in his kingdom

Charlemagne grew wealthy through conquest and used the booty to improve learning and culture
Charlemagne’s empire disintegrated shortly after the death of his son and successor Louis the Pious
Late ninth and tenth centuries saw waves of attacks by the Vikings from Scandinavia, the Magyars from eastern Europe, and the Muslims in the south.

These conditions led to the development of a feudal society

Feudal and Manorial Society

feudal society (definition)—the social, political, military, and economic system that emerged in response to the invasions of the ninth and tenth centuries

vassalage—a pledge of fealty to a lord in exchange for a fief

manor system and serfdom

village farms, usually owned by a local landlord, were called manors
peasants labored on farms and, in exchange, the lord gave them small plots of land in exchange for a portion of the crops
peasants who entered the service of a lord without any property ended up as serfs who were not free

Section Six: Church and State in the High Middle Ages

Section Overview

High Middle Ages

period of political expansion and the emergence of national monarchs in England, France, and Germany
revival of trade and commerce, the growth of towns, and the emergence of a merchant class
Church reaches its height of power after winning the Investiture Struggle

The Division of Christendom

Eastern vs. Western Church

Greek in the East and Latin in the West
West demanded clerical celibacy, the East permitted the marriage of parish priests
Eastern church opposed western tradition of icons and imagery in worship
East put more stress on the Bible and of the ecumenical councils than on papal primacy

The Rise of Towns

Urban centers and culture revived during the High Middle Ages
Bourgeois, or burgher, was first used in the eleventh century to describe the newly powerful townspeople

clergy and nobility grew suspicious of merchant class
common people admired the merchants and the new economic opportunities made possible through commerce

Merchant and artisan guilds emerged during the eleventh and twelfth centuries to protect them from policies created by the nobility
Sometimes towns formed independent communes and allied with kings against the landed nobility.

The Crusades

Pope Urban II called for the First Crusade in 1095 at Clermont in France

Crusader armies took control of Jerusalem in 1099 but it fell back into Arab hands by the middle of the eleventh century

Long-term achievements of the Crusades

Stimulated trade between western Europe and the East

Merchants from Genoa, Pisa, and Venice prospered

The Rise of New Monarchies

England

William of Normandy conquered England in 1066 and centralized the government of England

France

Norman conquest of England led French kings to solidify their power in order to compete with an increasingly centralized England

Holy Roman Empire

acted collectively in terms of foreign policy but local rulers enjoyed autonomy over domestic issues

Universities and Scholasticism

Due to Muslim scholars, the works of Aristotle, the writings of Euclid and Ptolemy, formulas of Arab mathematicians, and texts on Roman law became available to western scholars
Early universities

Bologna (1158)—specialized in law
University of Paris--theology
Oxford and Cambridge—liberal arts and medicine, theology, and law

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