European history the Late Middle Ages Outline study guide summary

 


 

European history the Late Middle Ages Outline study guide summary

 

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European history the Late Middle Ages Outline study guide summary

AP European History
Chapter 9: The Late Middle Ages Outline

Chapter Overview: War, Plague, and Schism

  • Barbara Tuchman, a prominent historian, describes the late Middle Ages as The Calamitous Fourteenth Century.  Western Civilization was assaulted on several fronts including:
    • The Black Death (1348-1352)
    • The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) between France and England
    • Schism in the Catholic Church (1378-1417)
    • Invasions by the Turks
  • Amidst this mayhem, scholars began to criticize medieval assumptions about the nature of God, humankind, and society.

Section One: The Black Death

  • Section Overview:
    • Keep in mind that the plague struck Europe at a moment of vulnerability as the continent was overpopulated and malnourished.
  • Preconditions and Causes of the Plague
    • From 1000-1300, Europe’s population doubled
      • Population growth strained the food supply
      • Population growth led to high unemployment and low wages
      • Crop failures between 1315 and 1317 exacerbated the food shortage crisis
    • Black Death followed trade routes from Asia
      • Plague moved from south to north along major trade routes
  • Popular Remedies
    • Corruption in the atmosphere was believed to be the cause of the plague
      • some blamed poisonous fumes from earthquakes
    • Remedies
      • many wore “aromatic” amulets
      • lifestyle changes
        • some thought moderate and temperate living would save them from the plague
        • some indulged in excess (sexual promiscuity ran high in infected areas)
        • others chose to flee the plague or remain in seclusion
      • religious fanatacism
        • flagellants
        • Jews as scapegoats
          • Pogroms occurred in several cities
  • Social and Economic Consequences
    • Farms decline
      • Supply and demand (fewer laborers, higher wages; less demand for food, lower prices for agricultural products)
      • many serfs demanded money payments and some pursued the more lucrative skilled craft industries in cities; the price of luxury and manufactured goods rose
      • Noble landholders lost power as they were forced to pay more for finished products and for farm labor, while receiving a smaller return on their agricultural produce
    • Peasants Revolt
      • England
        • To recover losses, landholders instituted oppressive laws that forced peasants to stay on their farms while freezing their wages at low levels.
          • ie. English Parliament passed a Statute of Laborers which set low prices for farm laborers and limited their mobility
        • English Peasants’ Revolt in 1381
      • France
        • Increase over the taille rate (mandatory tax on peasants) led to the Jacquiere (peasants’ revolt)
    • Cities Rebound
      • Omnipresence of death            demand for luxury items (silks, furs, jewelry, furniture)             prosperous cities
        • cities expanded legal autonomy from nobles and kings they had enjoyed prior to the plague and expanded their influence to surrounding areas.
        • Skilled artisans fought to retain the right to limit the number of people in their industries
      • Impact of the plague on Church
        • Suffered as a landowner and was politically weakened
        • Some increased revenue due to volume of religious services and donations in honor of the dead
  • New Conflicts and Opportunities
    • Guilds gained political power in local governments
      • Guild masters and journeymen came into conflict as the former wanted to restrict the number of masters while the latter wanted to become a master
      • Merchant and patrician classes could no longer bully the artisans
    • Kings expanded their power and fostered nationalism as the influence of the nobility and the church waned
      • Hundred Years’ War showed the military superiority of paid professional soldiers over that of the traditional noble cavalry

Section Two: The Hundred Years’ War and the Rise of National Sentiment

  • Section Overview
    • Throughout the fourteenth century, the monarchies of England and France demanded greater loyalty from their lords which, in turn, broke down regionalism and led to the rise of national consciousness
    • Nationalist sentiments festered, giving way to the Hundred Years’ War
  • The Causes of the War
    • Dynastic struggle
      • English king Edward III, the grandson of Philip the Fair of France, made a claim to the French throne after the French king Charles IV, the last of Philip’s surviving sons, died without a male heir.
      • The French nobles named the first cousin of Charles IV, Philip VI of Valois, king and his dynasty would rule into the sixteenth century.
    • Relationship between England and France
      • King of England was technically a vassal of the king of France, as English monarchs possessed sizeable French territories dating back to the Norman conquest
        • French kings and nobles found it repugnant that England’s king owned land in France
      • England and France quarreled over control of Flanders
      • General animosity between England and France
    • French Weakness
      • Internal disunity as French monarchy was still undergoing centralization campaign
      • Economic troubles
      • Inferior military (English archers gave England a clear advantage)
      • Mediocre leadership from the French monarchs (England’s kings were shrewd)
  • The Progress of the War
    • Three major stages
      • Stage One: The Conflict during the reign of Edward III
        • Edward embargoed English wool to Flanders which inspired rebellions by merchants and trade guilds against the French monarchy in Flemish cities (Jacob van Artevelde, a rich merchant, organized the revolts)
          • The Flemish cities entered an alliance with the English and recognized Edward III as their king
        • English naval victory in the Bay of Sluys was first major battle of the war
        • Battle of Crecy (1340)
          • English victory in Normandy that led to the seizure of the French port of Calais
        • pause in action during the plague years
        • Battle of Poitiers (1356)
          • Stunning English victory over the French noble cavalry
          • French King John II taken hostage by the English
            • French Estates General took power in France and used the opportunity to gain rights like those achieved by England’s nobles in the Magna Carta
        • French nobles increase the taille to repair damages from war and the peasants revolt in what is known as the Jacquerie (1358)
          • Revolt was quickly stamped out
        • Peace of Bretigny-Calais (1360)
          • Ended English monarchs vassalage to the French king and affirmed England’s king sovereignty over Gascony, Guyenne, Poitou, and Calais.
          • France paid a ransom of 3 million gold crowns for King John II
      • Stage Two: French Defeat and the Treaty of Troyes
        • After Edward III died in 1377, England experience domestic issues during the reign of Richard II
          • English Peasants’ Revolt (1381)
            • John Ball and Wat Tyler led the revolt
            • peasants and artisans joined together to demand privileges
        • England resumed the war under Henry V
          • Battle of Agincourt (1415)
            • English victory that left a large percentage of the French nobility dead
            • France powerless against England
          • Treaty of Troyes (1420)
            • named Henry V the successor to the French king, Charles VI
              • when Henry V and Charles VI died within months of each other, the infant Henry VI of England was proclaimed in Paris to be the king of both France and England
            • son of Chalres VII was acknowledges as king by most of the French people and this raised the sense of nationalism in France
      • Stage Three: Joan of Arc and the War’s Conclusion
        • Joan of Arc and the siege of Orleans
          • Peasant from Lorraine in eastern France who visited Charles VII and claimed that God had called her to expel the English from the province of Orleans
          • Although skeptical, Charles was desperate and put her in command of an army
          • Joan successfully ousted the English from Orleans and France experienced a wave of victories
        • The capture of Joan of Arc
          • The Burgundians, who were allies of the English, captured and turned Joan of Arc over to the Inquisition in England
          • She was executed as a heretic on May 30, 1431
          • Charles VII declared her innocent 25 years later
          • The Roman Catholic Church canonized her as a saint in 1920.
        • The duke of Burgundy made peace with the French king in 1435, allowing France to push the English back
        • By 1453, when the war ended, England maintained control of only Calais
      • Implications of the Hundred Years’ War
        • Awakened French nationalism and called for the transition to a centralized state
        • Burgundy became a major European power
        • England developed its own clothing industry and foreign markets as they could not rely on the Netherlands during the conflict due to its see-sawing allegiance throughout the war
        • English and French peasants faced high taxation to pay for the cost of war

Section Three: Ecclesiastical Breakdown and Revival—The Late Medieval Church

  • Section Overview
    • By the latter thirteenth-century, the Roman Catholic Church appeared to be extremely powerful.
      • Threat of Holy Roman Empire to Rome vanquished
      • The French king, Louis IX, was an enthusiastic supporter of the Church
      • Council of Lyons (1274) declared a reunion of the Eastern Church with Rome after the pope sent forces to defend the Byzantine Empire against the Turks (the reunion only lasted seven years)
  • The Thirteenth-Century Papacy
    • Pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216) and the height of papal power
      • Innocent enacted the doctrine of plentitude of power which enabled him to:
        • declare saints
        • dispose benefices
        • create a centralized papal monarchy with a clear political mission
      • secularization of the Church during Innocent’s reign as pope ignited the criticisms that would last until the Protestant Reformation
    • Pope Urban IV (r. 1261-1264)
      • Urban IV established the Rota Romana, the papacy’s own court of law
    • Other power grabs made by the church in the thirteenth-century
      • popes claimed the right to determine appointments to many church offices
      • expansion of the church’s bureaucracy
      • made clerical taxes instituted to raise money for the Crusades permanent
    • Impact of these reforms
      • Rome’s interest, not local needs, came to control church policies and the church in Rome slowly began to lost popular support
      • heretical groups like the Cathars and Waldensians advocated apostolic piety
    • political fragmentation
      • During the centuries that the Holy Roman Emperor intervened and threatened Italy, the city-states and the papacy stood united.  When the Holy Roman Emperor became irrelevant on the Italian Peninsula, the pope and College of Cardinals became the targeted by their former allies.
        • Charles of Anjou, the French king of Naples and Sicily, used his influence to create a French-Sicilian faction within the college of cardinals
        • Rules for a conclave
        • Pope Celestine V
          • devout, but inept, hermit who was elected pope in 1294
          • forced to resign under suspicious circumstances
          • died under suspicious circumstances
          • Pope Boniface VIII, a nobleman and skilled politician (the antithesis of Celestine V), elected pope
  • Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair
    • Historical background
      • Boniface became pope at the same time as England and France were maturing nation-states.
        • Edward I promoted unity in England by organizing formal meetings with the newly formed Parliament
        • Philip IV centralized the monarchy in France and was determined to end England’s landholdings in France, control wealthy Flanders, and establish French hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire.           
      • Essentially, the pope was no longer a match for the budding nation-states of western Europe
    • Royal Challenge to Papal Authority
      • Conflict between King Edward I and Pope Boniface VIII over the king’s right to tax the clergy in England.
        • Edward I taxed clergy for a “crusade” to help finance England’s mobilization effort
        • Innocent issues a papal bull Clericos Iaicos
          • forbade lay taxation of the clergy without papal approval
        • Edward I retaliated by denying the clergy the right to be heard in royal courts, thus denying them the king’s protection in legal matters
      • Conflict between Philip IV of France and Pope Boniface VIII
        • Philip prohibited the export of money from France to Rome, which bankrupted the Church
        • Boniface responded by giving the king of France the right to tax the clergy in France “during an emergency”
      • Conflict between Boniface and the Colonnas (noble family)
        • Colonnas were radical followers of St. Francis and accused Boniface of heresy, the murder to Celestine V, and simony.
      • Another conflict between Boniface and Edward I
        • Boniface encouraged and supported Scottish resistance to English rule
      • Another conflict between Boniface and Philip IV
        • Philip arrested Boniface’s Parisian legate (a diplomat), Bernard Saisset (who was also a powerful secular lord and potential rival to the king’s power)
        • Boniface issues Ausculta fili, “Listen, My Son” which states, “God has set popes over kings and kingdoms
    • Unam Sanctum
      • Boniface VIII’s declaration that the temporal authority was subject to the spiritual power of the Church
      • Philip reacted aggressively to Unam Sanctum
        • Pope Boniface VIII was declared a heretic in France
        • Philip’s army captured and beat up the pope before a crown rescued Boniface and returned him to Rome; the pope died shortly thereafter
      • Pope Clement V (r. 1305-1314) succeeds Boniface and is subservient to the French king
        • Clement declared that Unam Sanctum does not diminish the power of the French monarchy
        • Clement moved the papal court to Avignon, a city on the southeastern border of France, where it remained from 1311-1377.
  • The Avignon Papacy
    • Papacy under strong French influence while in Avignon
    • Clement V in need of revenue
      • Started the practice of collect annates, the first year’s income of a new benefice
      • Started the practice of selling indulgences, pardons for unrepented sins.
        • Not surprisingly, the church marketed the idea of purgatory during this same period
    • Avignon papacy gained a reputation for materialism and corruption
    • Pope John XXII (1316-1334)
      • Pope John XXII tried to restore papal independence and return to Italy and created several enemies in the process
        • the Visconti, the ruling family in Milan, did not want to see the papacy return to Rome
        • Pope John XXII instigated a feud with Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV when he refused to accept his candidacy for the imperial title
          • Louis IV, in retaliation, declared an antipope
          • Louis also recruited two scholars, Marsilius of Padua and William of Ockham, to support his cause
      • Marsilius of Padua, Defender of Peace (1324)
        • stressed the independence of secular rulers
        • piety expected of clergy and duties confined to spiritual activities, not ruling
        • pope depicted as a subordinate member of society over which the emperor ruled supreme
    • National Opposition to the Avignon Papacy
      • England opposed the Avignon Papacy as they saw it intimately attached to France, England’s enemy in the Hundred Years’ War
      • Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438)
        • agreement that recognized the right of the French Church  to elect its own clergy without papal interference
        • prohibited the payment of annates to Rome
        • limited the right of appeals from French courts to the Curia in Rome
  • Wycliffe and Hus
    • Wycliffe and the Lollards
      • Wycliffe and his issues
        • Oxford theologian and a philosopher of high standing
        •  he became a major spokesperson against the secularism of the papacy
        • advocated apostolic piety
        • anticipated Protestant criticisms of the medieval church by challenging papal infallibility, the sale of indulgences, and the dogma of transubstantiation
      • The Lollards (Wycliffe’s followers)
        • preached in vernacular, distributed translations of the Bible, and advocated clerical piety
        • Lollards were popular with the nobility and gentry who could potentially gain from a weakening Catholic Church
      • After the English Peasants’ Revolt in 1381, an uprising filled with egalitarian principles that could find support in Wycliffe’s teaching, Lollardy became a capital offense in England by 1401.
    • John Hus
      • Czech reformer and professor at the University of Prague
      • supported vernacular translations of the Bible and criticized several aspects of the sacrament of Eucharist
      • he was excommunicated in 1410 and Prague was placed under the interdict
      • Council of Constance
        • Hus declared a heretic and executed in 1415
      • Hussites revolted following Hus’s execution and gained significant religious reforms and control over the Bohemian church

 

 

 

  • The Great Schism (1378-1417) and the Conciliar Movement to 1449
    • Section overview
      • Pope Gregory XI (1370-1378) reestablished the papacy in Rome in January 1377, ending what had become known as the “Babylonian Captivity” of the Church in Avignon.
      • The return to Rome proved to be short lived.
    • Urban VI and Clement VII
      • When Gregory XI died, the cardinals elected an Italian archbishop as Pope Urban VI
        • Urban VI wanted to reform the Curia
        • French cardinals called for the return of the papacy to Avignon
        • French King, Charles V, supported what came to be known as the Great Schism
      • French cardinals formed a conclave and elected Pope Clement VII, a cousin of the French king
        • The French cardinals claimed they had only voted for Urban VI out of fear
      • Allegiances to the two popes
        • Urban VI (Italian pope in Rome)
          • supported by England and its allies including the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland)
        • Clement VII
          • supported by France and its allies including Naples, Scotland, Castile, and Aragon
    • Conciliar Theory of Church Government
      • conciliar theory
        • technically, since a pope is infallible, a council could not depose him
        • church scholars debated for thirty years whether or not a council of church leaders could regulate the actions of a pope
        • ‘conciliarists’ defined the church as a body, of which the pope was one member
        • Eventually, it was determined that cardinals representing both popes would convene at a council
    • Council of Pisa (1409-1410)
      • Cardinals convened and deposed both popes and elected a new pope, Alexander V
      • Although most of western Europe accepted Alexander V a the legitimate pope, neither Urban VI nor Clement VII agreed to step down
    • The Council of Constance (1414-1417)
      • Three competing popes
        • John XXIII succeeded Alexander V as the consensus pope
        • Gregory XII succeeded Urban VI as the Italian pope
        • Clement VII was still the French pope
      • Emperor Sigismund demanded that John XXIII call a council in Constance which made a declaration entitled Sacrosancta which:
        • elected a new pope, Martin V (the three other popes were forced to resign)
        • asserted the supremacy of church councils over individual pope
        • demanded that regular meetings of church councils
    • The Council of Basel (1431-1449)
      • Church council negotiated directly with the Hussites, a group formerly identified as heretics
      • Four Articles of Prague presented to council by Hussites
        • give laity the Eucharist with the cup as well as bread
        • free, itinerant preaching
        • exclusion of clergy from holding secular offices and owning property
        • just punishment of clergy who commit mortal sins
      • Council of Basel showed dominance over the papacy but Pope Pius II (r. 1458-1464) issued a papal bull Execrabilis which condemned appeals to councils and made them completely void.
    • Consequences
      • Without effective papal authority and leadership, secular control of national or territorial churches increased
        • Kings asserted their power over the church in England and France
        • German, Swiss, and Italian magistrates and city councils reformed and regulated religious life

 

Section Four: Medieval Russia

  • Section Overview
    • Prince Vladimir (r. 980-1015) of Kiev (Russia’s dominant city at the time) chose to make Greek Orthodox the religion in Russia and thereby established close ties with the Byzantines.
  • Politics and Society
    •  Yaroslav the Wise succeeded Ladimir and developed Kiev into a magnificent cultural and political center
    • Following Yaroslav’s death, princes divided Russia into three cultural groups: the Great Russians, the White Russians, and the Little Russians (Ukranians)
    • Government
      • Prince, council of nobles, popular assembly of all free adult males
    • Social division
      • freemen (clergy, army officers, boyars, townspeople, and peasants)
      • slaves (prisoners of war)
  • Mongol Rule
    • In the thirteenth century steppe peoples known as Mongols swept through China, the Islamic world, and Russia.
    • Ghengis Khan
      • notorious Mongol leader who invaded Russia in 1223
      • established a Mongol Empire known as the Golden Horde
    • Russia was forced to pay tribute to their Mongol overlords and to fight in the Mongol army
    • Russian culture fused with that of the Mongols, who had adopted Islam as their faith
    • In 1380, Grand Duke Dimitri of Moscow defeated the Mongols at Kulikov Meadow, and Mongol influence in Russia slowly withered away.
    • Ivan III (d. 1505) would eventually bring all of northern Russia under Moscow’s control and officially ended Mongol occupation. 
      • Moscow replaced Kiev as political and religious center of Russia

 

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