Roman empire history for kids summary and notes

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Roman empire history for kids summary and notes

Key dates

55BC Julius Caesar's first invasion

54BC Julius Caesar's second invasion

43 Claudius' invasion

50s campaigns in Wales

60-1 attack on Anglesey

Boudiccan revolt

69 Year of the Four Emperors

70s civil war in Brigantia leads to Roman takeover

subjugation of Wales

81-4 Agricola in Caledonia

90s withdrawal to Clyde-Forth line

100s withdrawal to Stanegate forts on Solway-Tyne line

110s border wars

especially 117-119

122-126 Hadrian's Wall on Solway-Tyne line

139-142 Antonine Wall on Clyde-Forth line

163 back to Hadrian's Wall on Solway-Tyne line

[208-11 Septimius Severus campaigns in Caledonia, but fails to conquer it – dies at York exhausted by the effort

Important Britons

Adminius Catuvellauni, Cantiaci

brother of Caratacus, son of Cunobelinus – flees to Caligula after being expelled from Kent

Boudicca Iceni

wife of Prasutagus, king of the Iceni – leads the 61 revolt of the Iceni

Caratacus Catuvellauni

son of Cunobelinus – leads resistance to the 43 (Claudian) invasion, first among the Catuvellauni, then among the Silures, flees to the Brigantes, but is handed over to the Romans by Cartimandua, his life is spared by Claudius

Cassivellaunus Catuvellauni

leads resistance to Caesar's 55BC invasion

Calgacus Caledonii

leader of the Caledonian confederacy – defeated in 83 at Mons Graupius by Agricola

Cartimandua Brigantes

joint ruler (with Venutius) of the Brigantes for most of the period 40-70, ally of Rome, fights several civil wars (with Roman support) to keep the anti-Roman faction out of power

Cogidubnus Atrebates

long-term ally of Rome

Cunobelinus Catuvellauni

powerful king who expands the territory of the Catuvellauni during the reigns of the early emperors

Mandubracius Trinovantes

deposed by Cassivellaunus, flees to Julius Caesar, who restores him to the throne in the 55BC invasion

Prasutagus Iceni

ally of the Romans – after his death, the greed and folly of the Roman officials implementing his will sparks the Iceni revolt

Togodumnus Catuvellauni

brother of Caratacus, son of Cunobelinus – killed early in the 43 (Claudian) invasion

Venutius Brigantes

joint ruler (with Cartimandua) of the Brigantes, leader of the anti-Roman faction, eventually gains power in a civil war in 69 with the help of the Selgovae, defeated by the Romans when they annex Brigantia in 71-73

Verica Atrebates

deposed by Cunobelinus, flees to Claudius, who uses his restoration as a pretext for the 43 invasion

Roman Emperors

Julio-Claudians

Augustus 31BC-14AD

Tiberius 14-37

Caligula 37-41

Claudius 41-54

Nero 54-68

69 – Year of the Four Emperors

Otho → Galba → Vitellius → Vespasian

Flavians

Vespasian 69-79

Titus 79-81

Domitian 81-96

Adoptive Emperors

Trajan 98-117

Hadrian 117-138

Antoninus Pius 138-161

Marcus Aurelius 161-180

List of Sources

Julius Caesar 100-44BC politician and general

Cicero 106-43BC politician and writer

Horace 65-8BC poet

Tibullu s 50-19BC poet

Strabo 44BC-23 historian and geographer

Pliny 24-79 official and writer

Frontinus 30-104 general

Statius 45-96 poet

Plutarch 50-120 biographer and historian

Tacitus 56-120 senator and historian

Suetonius 69-130 official and historian; minister to Hadrian

Appian 90-160 civil servant and historian

Pausanias c 150 geographer

Cassius Dio c 200 senator and historian; counsellor to Severus

SHA c 375 collection of biographies by various writers

Important Roman Governors

Aulus Plautius 43-47

leads the 43 invasion

Ostorius Scapula 47-52

consolidates the 43 invasion, pushing the borser to the Severn-Humver line (the Fosse Way)

Suetonius Paullinus 58-61

puts down the Iceni revolt

Vettius Bolanus 69-71

rescues Cartimandua during the Brigantian civil war

Petilius Cerialis 71-73

conquers Brigantia

Julius Frontinus 73-77

conquers south and mid Wales

Julius Agricola 77-84

conquers lowland Scotland and Caledonia

Platorius Nepos 122-127

builds Hadrian's Wall

Lollius Urbicus 139-142

builds the Antonine Wall

List of Places

Forts, towns, etc

Caerleon

Carlisle

Chester

Colchester (Camulodunum)

Corbridge

Exeter

Gloucester

Hadrian's Wall (Aelian Wall)

Lincoln (Lindum)

London (Londinium)

Maiden Castle

Silchester

St Albans (Verulamium)

Vindolanda (Chesterholm)

Winchester

Wroxeter

York

Natural features

Clyde

Forth

Humber

Severn

Solway

Tay

Thames

Tyne

Wash

Roman politics at the end of the Republic (88BC-31BC)

This is extremely complicated, so these are only the barest outlines. But it is useful to know, because it helps explain:

why people accepted emperors
the need of the emperors for high-prestige projects (like Claudius' invasion of Britain)
the importance of keeping the army focussed on border areas

Instances where the constitution was disregarded are noted – the way in which the constitution was flouted when it suited powerful people to do so is another important factor in the change from republican to imperial rule.

Roman society

Roman society had undergone major changes since it began to expand as a major power in the period 150BC onwards.

The army

the army used to be a volunteer army (a militia)
- Roman farmers would leave their farms, join the legions to fight in a war, and return home for the harvest
- they were felt to have a "stake" in the army's success
- legions were re-formed and disbanded every year
- as Rome's domains expanded, it was impossible to get to the warzone and back again in time for the harvest
- farmers increasingly found serving in the army a chore
now the army was increasingly a professional one
- people (mostly poor people) were allowed to joined as a career (by Marius – see below)
- training became standardised
- legions became permanent and had a strong sense of regimental tradition
- soldiers were dependent on their commander for plunder during campaigns and farms to retire to at the end of their service
- loyalty to the commander replaced loyalty to the state

The economy

small farmers had been increasingly replaced by huge estates worked by states
cheap corn was imported from Egypt and elsewhere to feed the capital
- small farmers found it even harder to make a living
many people (including small farmers who had given up trying) crowded into Rome
- many of these people had no work
- depended on the corn dole
- were liable to become a mob at times of political tension (they supported the person who offered them most)
a few people at the top could become fabulously wealthy if they could work the system to get posted to a rich province as governor
Roman expansion → increase in trade, especially in luxury goods

Politics (this is very simplified!)

increasing friction between
- the nobles (patricians, aristocrats, optimates), who wanted to retain their privileges
- the commoners (plebeians, democrats, populares), who wanted a greater role in government
- the middle-classes (equestrians, knights), who were usually capitalists, sided sometiems with the nobles, and sometimes with the commoners, depending on the business benefits
- these were broad groupings, rather than political parties as we know them
- government by the Senate (mostly nobles) was increasingly discredited, because it was seen as corrupt and inefficient
- Greek writings on democracy were increasingly available
- ambitious men might decide that the army (used in conquest or to threaten a military coup) or populism (sucking up to the commoners) provided a more effective way to the top
- the constitution was increasingly altered or ignored for reasons of personal ambition

A century of civil war

130-120BC – the Gracchi
- the brothers (Tiberius and Caius) Gracchus are murdered when they try to bring in legislation favouring the lower and middle classes
120-80BC – Marius and Sulla
- the middle-class general (Caius) Marius defeats Germanic tribes who had invaded Italy
- serves as consul for 5 consecutive years 104-100BC (unconstitutional – you were only supposed to be consul for one year at a time, with a gap before a subseqent consulship)
- supports populist legislation, but this leads to street-fighting
- discredited, leaves Rome
- the aristocrats regain control
- Italian towns rebel against Rome (the Social War): they want Roman citizenship, because they are currently treated as second-class citizens
- Marius and his bitter enemy, the aristocrat (Lucius Cornelius) Sulla, put down the rising, and full citizenship is granted
- Sulla is supposed to lead a campaign in the east against Mithridates of Pontus, who has invaded the province of Asia Minor
- Marius tries to get the campaign assigned to him instead
- Sulla marches his army into Rome (unconstitutional – no armed troops were allowed in the city) – in effect, a military coup
- Marius flees
- Sulla enacts pro-noble legislation and then heads east, where he defeats Mithridates
- gang warfare in Rome, culminating in a siege of the city by populist forces
- once they enter Rome, there is a bloodbath – Marius' populists kill anyone opposed to him
- Marius dies before Sulla returns to Italy
- Sulla defeats the populist forces, the last battle taking place just outside Rome's walls
- Sulla launches a Terror – democrats are proscribed (ie you will not be punished if you murder them), and their property is confiscated
- Sulla appointed dictator for life (unconstitutional – dictators were appointed in an emergency for a fixed term)
- Sulla enacts reactionary reform laws strengthening the nobles' grip on the Senate
- Sulla dies of apoplexy in 78
- about 500,000 people died in these upheavals
80-60BC – Pompey and Caesar
- Gnaeus Pompeius Sextus (Pompey), an officer in Sulla's army, defeats the last supporters of Marius in Sicily, Africa, and Spain
- Spartacus leads a slave revolt
- (Marcus Licinius) Crassus, another of Sulla's officers, who is immensely rich, puts down the rebellion
  - Pompy arrives back from Spain to mop up and claims credit too
- Pompey is given a second Triumph (unconstitutional – only 35, he had not held any of the accepted official posts)
- Pompey is elected consul (unconstitutional – too young, not even a senator)
  - but the populists see him as someone who might help them regain power
  - they are beginning to regroup under the leadership of the able and ambitious (Gaius Julius) Caesar
- Pompey rids the Mediterranean of pirates in 7 weeks
  - given command of the Mediterranean and everything 50 miles inland (unconstitutional)
- nominated to take command of the ongoing war against Mithridates
  - given command over three provinces, and power to declare war and make peace (unconstitutional)
- Pompey defeats Mithridates and makes Pontus a Roman province
- increasing civil unrest in Rome
  - various great men hire gamgs of armed yobs to attack their opponents
- (Lucius Sergius) Catilina, a bankrupt noble, is accused of plotting a coup
  - there are rumours that Crassus and Caesar were in on the plot
- (Marcus Tullius) Cicero, a lawyer and writer, becomes consul (a great achievement for someone like him who is not attached to an aristocratic patron), beating Catilina
- Catilina fails a second time to get elected consul, and sets in motion plans for a coup
- Cicero gets the Senate to declare martial law (senatus consultum ultimum – ultimate declaration of the senate)
- Catilina's associates are arrested and taken to the Senate
  - Caesar suggests life imprisonment
  - Cicero argues for execution
  - the Senate votes for execution, and Cicero has them executed that day (unconstitutional? – he had put Roman citizens to death without a trial; his enemies later got him exiled for a while, using this as an excuse)
- Cicero, a supporter of Pompey, is now aligned with the nobles, and hopes to enlist Pompey on their side
- Caesar is elected as High Priest (rumours of bribery), and then goes to Spain as a governor
- Pompey returns to Rome and celebrates a third Triumph of great magnificence
- even though (unlike Sulla) he disbands his legions, the nobles in the Senate do not trust him
- the nobles thwart his plans to give land to his veterans, and his arrangements in the Near East
- the nobles also rebuff attempts by the middle-class capitalists, now gathered around Crassus, to make more profit on the arrangements for tax-collecting in the Near East

60-45BC – Caesar and Pompey

Crassus pays off Caesar's debts in return for support against Pompey
Caesar, now back from Spain, reconciles Pompey and Crassus, on the grounds that together all three can force the nobles to deal with their grievances
they secretly form an alliance (the First Triumvirate) with Caesar, to benefit all three of them
Crassus uses money and Pompey uses gangs of veterans to get Caesar elected as consul and pass the legislation they want on land for veterans and the tax-gathering rebate
Caesar is made governor of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul, along with Illyricum, for 5 years (unconstitutional – should have been 1 province for 1 year)
the following year
- Pompey is made governor of Spain for 5 years (unconstitutional), but stays in Rome to overhaul the grain supply
- Crassus is made governor of Syria for 5 years (unconstitutional)
Caesar attacks Gaulish tribes outside his province (unconstitutional) on the pretext that they are aiding German tribes who might attack Rome
Crassus attacks Parthia (Iran) (unconstitutional) on the pretext that the Parthians has encroached on the Roman client kingdom of Armenia
- Crassus is defeated and killed at the Battle of Carrhae
- his head was taken to the Parthian court, where the king was watching a performance of Euripides' Bacchae, and the actor playing Agave used Crassus' head as a prop in the scene where she returns with Pentheus' head
- there is speculation that some of his army, taken captive by the Parthians, ended up in China
Pompey allies himself more and more with the nobles, and enacts laws which are aimed against Caesar
anarchic street violence in Rome, culminating in the murder of a politician
the Senate declares martial law, and appoints Pompey as sole consul (unconstitutional – he was already governor of Spain, and there should always be two consuls)
the Senate orders Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome as a private citizen
Caesar knows that his enemies want to prosecute him (eg for bribery or even treason)
in 49BC he leads his army across the R. Rubicon (now the R. Fiumicino), the southern border of his provinces (unconstitutional)
Pompey and most of the Senate retreat to Macedonia, leaving Rome undefended
- their newly-raised, inexperienced troops would be no match for Caesar's battle-hardened trooops (even though he only had one, the Thirteenth, actually with him
- Pompey has control of the sea, and virtually all the provinces have declared for him
- he plans to gather and train his forces and then attack Italy
Caesar acts with astonishing speed:
- he defeats the Pompeians in Spain and Marseille (Gaul)
- he forces his way across the Adriatic to Greece
- almost loses the Battle of Dyrrhachium, where Pompey has twice as many soldiers, but manages to withdraw his troops
  - They could have won today, if they had a commander who is a winner.
- decisively defeats Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus
Pompey flees to Egypt, where he is assassinated by the boy-Pharaoh's advisers
Caesar defeats the Pharaoh's forces and sets Cleopatra, the Pharaoh's sister, on the thone
he inflicts a crushing defeat on the king of Pontus, who had invaded Roman provinces in the Near East
- his message to the Senate read: veni, vidi, vici. (I came, I saw, I conquered.)
he defeats the remaining Pompeians in North Africa, and Spain
now master of Rome, he pardons many of his enemies, and starts a series of ambitious reforms intended to strengthen central government
- one was the institution of a new calendar, which we still use today
on 15 March 44BC (the Ides of March), his enemies, led by (Marcus Junius) Brutus and (Gaius) Cassius (Longinus), assassinate him in the Senate, stabbing him 23 times
- they hoped to re-establish the Republic, but in fact brought about its final end
- Brutus was possibly Caesar's illegitimate son

45BC-30BC – Antony and Octavian
- Cassius had wanted to kill Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), Caesar's loyal lieutenant, too, but Brutus dissuaded him
- the middle and lower classes, who saw Caesar as their champion, were enraged that a small group of aristocrats had killed him
- Antony turns these people against the conspirators, and riots force them to flee Rome
- Antony is now in charge of Rome, and begins collecting troops to hunt down the conspirators
- Caesar's will is read, and to Antony's surprise, his heir is the 18-year old Octavian
  - Octavian's mother Atia was Caesar's niece
  - Caesar made him his heir because he had no surviving legitimate children
  - although young, Octavian was extremely shrewd, and also merciless
- Antony moves north to attack Decimus Brutus, one of the conspirators
- once he leaves the city, the Senate regains its independence, and, led by Cicero, denounce him as a public enemy (ie he must be hunted down and killed)
- the nobles see Octavian as someone who can be used (his name, Caesar, will inspire loyalty in the troops) to destroy Antony, and then discarded
- they make Octavian a senator, and give him joint command of an army
- Antony is defeated in two battles in northern Italy, but Octavian's co-commanders (the two consuls) are also killed, leaving him in sole command
- Antony flees to Gaul, where he joins with (Marcus Aemilius) Lepidus, another of Caesar's former lieutenants
- Octavian marches on Rome and demands to be made a consul – the Senate complies
- Octavian joins with Antony and Lepidus in the Second Triumvirate, and they proscribe dozens of opponents
  - Cicero was one of them – Antony hated him for his speeches against him
- Antony and Octavian defeat Brutus and Cassius at two battles in Philippi in Macedonia
- Antony takes the eastern province, Octavian the western ones, leaving Lepidus with Africa
- Antony becomes Cleopatra's partner
- Octavian evicts the inhabitants of 18 Italian towns so that he can give land to his veterans
- Octavian crushes a rebellion by Antony's brother and wife, and executes 300 of their noble allies
- Antony brings troops to Italy to attack Octavian, but the troops on both sides refuse to fight (since they are all Caesarians)
- Octavian, Antony and Lepidus patch up their differences and extend the Triumvirate
- Octavian and Lepidus defeats Pompey's son, now a powerful pirate who has taken over Sicily
- Lepidus tries to seize Sicily and is kicked out of the Triumvirate
- Antony attacks the Parthian Empire, but is forced to retreat with heavy losses
- Antony marries Cleopatra in Alexandria – shocking to Roman public opinion
- Antony announces the distribution of Roman provinces in the East to his and Cleopatra's children, and declares that her son Caesarion is Caesar's true heir
- propaganda war between Octavian and Antony, culminating in the Senate declaring war on Cleopatra
- Antony and Cleopatra lead their forces to Greece
- Octavian destroys Antony's naval fleet at Actium,and his land army surrenders
  - Cleopatra feared defeat, ordered her squadron of 60 ships to make a run for it
  - when Antony saw her leave, he left the battle too
- Octavian follows Antony and Cleopatra to Egypt
  - both commit suicide
- Octavian is now undisputed master of Rome
- the Senate votes him the name Augustus, and he becomes Princeps ( → prince), preeminent – Emperor in all but name

Pre-Roman Britain

Herodotus

mentions the Kassiterides (Tin Islands)

I cannot speak with any certainty

Pytheas

wrote a periplus (traveller's guide) describing his visits to Belerion (Cornwall) and farther north

original now lost, but quoted by later writers

Roman unease

“terror gallicus” - fear of the Celts

barbarian superpower to the north

sacked Rome in 390BC (Brennus - “vae victis”)

Britain almost mythical - “beyond Oceanus”

Caesar

large population with numerous cattle

use coins

tin and iron

interior: live on milk and meat

most Gauls know little about Britain

Diodorus Siculus: use chariots like in the Iliad

Strabo

Pytheas said he visited Britain, but he is a liar

(lies) live on millet and roots, make a drink from grain and honey, thresh their grain in large barns

[all of these could apply to Britain]

produce grain, cattle, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves, hunting dogs

[Bryn Celli Du: beautifully-made iron slave chain]

use chariots

live in clearings in the forest

quite tall

rain and fog

Archaeology

improving climate in 100sBC

more land brought into cultivation

increasing population

largely pastoral north of the Severn-Wash line, largely arable south of it

grew wheat, oats, rye, barley, rapeseed, hemp, flax, peas, beans, lentils

reared cattle, pigs and small goat-like sheep (all smaller than modern livestock)

round thatched houses with walls made of wattle and daub (sticks with mud cement over them)

hill-forts (600 in Wales, 800 in England) – prestige and not war at this point

hierarchical society led by warrior êlite

trade routes, with the Veneti (Brittany) as middle-men

main import centre Hengistbury Head (Dorset) - amphorae

imported wine, pottery, jewellery, glass

British exports would not be identifiable in the archaeological record

display of imported luxury goods (“conspicuous consumption” ) by the nobility

Snettisham hoard 70BC

Gaulish staters (copies of coins used by Greek traders) start circulating – not used for trade, but to store wealth, and for display

coins common south of the Severn-Humber line, rare north of it (likewise for brooches) – differences in wealth, or cultural? (perhaps the north used cattle as a store of wealth)

parts of southern Britain had more in common with Gaul

Tacitus: those closest to the Gauls are like them

the Romans had a vested interest in portraying the British as relatively uncivilised

liked to believe that they were bringing the benefits of civilisation to those they conquered

metalled roads usually considered a Roman introduction

May 2011 – metalled road dated to 100sBC discovered in Shropshire

all-weather road surfaced with cobbles

well before Roman invasion of 43

must have been a trade route with heavy traffic

perhaps connected the capital of the Cornovii to the Ordovices in Wales

Appian (90-160): The Romans rule the most important part of it – more than half – and have no need of the rest. In fact, the part they have brings them in little money.

Britain for its size has more coin and other hoards than anywhere else in the Roman empire.

Julius Caesar – 55BC

Caesar

50sBC – conquers Gaul

Plutarch: one million died, one million enslaved

800 settlements destroyed

80 ships

2 legions (7th and 10th)

8,000 soldiers

[18 ships with 500 cavalry never land]

Motives

Caesar: help had been supplied to our enemies from that quarter

Caesar: envoys came to him (Caesar) from numerous tribes in the island

wealth – silver, pearls, slaves

Suetonius: inspired by the prospect of pearls

prestige – political spin, celebrity status

necessity – had to find new wars for his armies to fight (shark)

Planning (poor)

snap decision

Commius as envoy – imprisoned

Volusenus as scout – ineffectual

late in the season – storms

few supplies – and harvest was over

(probably expected a walk-over, but it turned out differently)

goes from Boulogne to Dover

British massed there (Caesar: plainly no place to attempt a landing)

sails on to Deal

waters too deep, ships too high

aquilifer of the 10th jumps in (although this man was vital, Caesar doesn't give his name!)

beach-head established

chariot attack by the British

build a camp

British send envoys – including Commius

they offer hostages

4 days later, storms damage the fleet

no supplies and stranded … oops, this could look bad in Rome ….

7th attacked while foraging – Caesar rescues them

transports are repaired

Caesar embarks and escapes

Result

electrifies Rome – Roman armies have gone to the “far side of Ocean”

Plutarch: remarkable daring

Plutarch: reports had made men doubt its existence

Senate declares 20 days public holiday (conquest of Gaul got 5!)

eclipsed Pompey and Crassus, who were consuls that year

Tacitus: Caesar merely pointed Britain out, he did not bequeath it (ie he raided it, but he did not make it part of the Empire)

Julius Caesar – 54BC

Caesar

800 ships

5 legions

30,000 soldiers

cavalry

sails from Boulogne to Richborough

lands unopposed at midnight

night march with the 7th to take Bigbury, where the British are gathered

storm damages the fleet (déjà vu!) - ship fort has to be constructed

crosses the Thames after a brief battle

moves into Trinovantes territory

reinstates Mandubracius as king

Trinovantes give him supplies and intelligence

attacks Cassivellaunus' stronghold and destroys it, capturing lots of cattle

British offer hostages

using Commius as envoy (suggests Caesar opened negotiations – Commius wouldn't have been with the British unless Caesar had sent him there first)

agrees tribute (the Britons ignored this after a couple of years)

hurries back to Gaul, where a major rebellion is brewing

Motives

private merchant ships in the fleet (thinking of rich pickings?)

likely that the restoration of Mandubracius was accompanied by trading agreements

pre-Caesar: amphorae at Hengistbury Head

post-Caesar: amphorae at Thames (Veneti removed as middle-men)

amphorae were the packing-cases of the ancient world

Result

no celebrations in Rome (although this was far more of a military success than the previous year's raid)

Caesar's enemies were able to point to his lack of booty

Cicero: not a scrap of silver, no prospect of booty except slaves

Cicero: nothing there for us to fear or rejoice at

(writing a century later) Plutarch: there was nothing worth taking from the inhabitants

Cassivellaunus

military defeat, but not ineffective

built tribal coalition

harried the Romans with a force of 4,000 chariots (but because they have cavalry this time, the chariots are not so dangerous)

adopts a scorched earth policy – burn crops, drive off cattle

guerrilla tactics

shrewd in getting the Cantiaci (Kent) to attack the beach-head (although this fails badly)

Between Julius and Claudius (54BC-43AD)

poets, Strabo

90 years before the Romans returned

Strabo: the Romans could have held Britain, but they rejected the idea – there is nothing to fear from the Britons, and we get more from taxes than we would from tribute

(probably the official excuse rationalising the situation)

Augustus

planned invasions but emergencies elsewhere prevented this (Cassius Dio)

34BC – Dalmatian revolt

28BC – problems in Gaul

27BC – revolts in Spain

the poets Tibullus and Horace mention adding Britain to the Empire

Horace: the furthest nationof the world

9AD – disaster in the Teutoburg Forest (3 legions destroyed in a German ambush)

Augustus ruled out expanding the frontier

but developed a system of client kings

perhaps he had come to an arrangement with the British kings before that – invasion is not mentioned after 23BC

Strabo: some of the kings have gained the friendship of Caesar Augustus by sending embassies and paying him deference

southern Britain now increasingly connected to Rome

trade (graffiti in Braughing suggests Romans were living there)
patronage from Rome (one leader supported instead of another)
coinage – gold coins (eg staters from Tincomarus, Verica and Cunobelinus) could merely be a show of wealth, but low-value bronze coins (eg from Cunobelinus) show that a proper money-based economy had developed

Virgil (poet): Britain is entirely segregated from the whole world – not true

Rise of the Catuvellauni

54BC – Cassivellaunus (opposes Caesar)

20BC-5AD – Tasciovanus (makes St Albans his capital)

5-42 – Cunobelinus – probably recognised by Rome as a key ally

7 – gains control of Trinovantes and moves capital to Colchester (Trinovantes king, Dubnovellaunus, flees to Rome); his son Caratacus remains in St Albans

reflected in coins of Cunobelinus that carry the Colchester mint-mark

11 – gains control of Cantiaci (issues coins with Cunobelinus Rex (king) on them – 1m gold staters of Cunobelinus have been found – an enormous sum which suggests that trading profits were substantial; Cunobelinus' son Adminius is installed as king)

26 – gains control of northern Atrebates and eastern Dobunni (his son Togidumnus moves to Silchester, capital of the Atrebates)

39 – expels his son Adminius, probably for being too pro-Roman (he flees to Rome)

40 – gains control of southern Atrebates (their king, Verica, flees to Rome, and his restoration is used by Claudius as a pretext for the invasion)

Verica issued gold coins bearing the title Rex

Verica

the kingdom of the Atrebates was carved out by Commius (contemporary of Cassivellaunus)

quarrelled with Caesar and fled to Britain

he minted coins in 35BC

succeeded by his son Tincomarus

Verica was Commius' grandson

Caligula

Caligula had planned an invasion of Germany

perhaps prompted by Adminius, turns his attention to Britain

troops mutiny

commands them to collect seashells, as tribute from Neptune (Suetonius, Cassius Dio)

was he insanes?

or was he humiliating the troops who had refused to follow orders?

Claudius – 43AD

Cassius Dio

(unfortunately, the section in Tacitus' Annals dealing with the invasion is lost)

Motives

came to power in 41 almost by accident - undignified

attempted coup in 42 by Scribonianus

because of the above two, needed a prestigious project with military success

greatly admired Julius Caesar

seems to have decided to complete projects Caesar never got a chance to finish

enlarge harbour at Ostia
drain the Fucine Lake
like Caesar, he also promoted Gauls to the Senate (Claudius had been born in Gaul)
making Britain a Roman province, which Caesar obviously intended, would fit in well here

Verica's plea for assistance in recovering his kingdom was a useful pretext

Other possible considerations

Caligula had raised two new legions (15 Primigenia and 22 Primigenia)

these could not be disbanded without risking a mutiny

but there were now too many legions on the northern Rhine – a governor might get ideas

far better to find them something to do

much of Caligula's logistics arrangements (eg supply dumps, gathering of transport vessels) may still have been in place, and could still be put to use

perhaps the Catuvellauni were getting too big for their boots

not showing sufficient deference to Rome

they had demanded that the “traitors” Adminius and Verica be sent back to Britain

there were power-struggles and instability following Cunobelinus' death

sensible to take advantage of that

Britain was now a big supplier of grain to the Rhine garrison

the Romans may have wanted to safeguard that

the Romans may have wanted a bigger slice of trading profits than the Catuvellauni were prepared to give

there may have been an ongoing uneasiness about the security of northern Gaul while there was a powerful independent Celtic kingdom just across the Channel

Invasion

governor and general: Aulus Plautius (formerly governor of Pannonia – modern Hungary)

4 legions: 9 Hispana, 2 Augusta, 14 Gemina, 20 Valeria

50,000 men, including 5,000 cavalry, Batavians, and a few elephants

Claudius to be present during final assault (presented Plautius with logistical problems)

troops refused to board

Cassius Dio: the soldiers objected to the idea of campaigning outside the known world

perhaps memories of Germanicus' campaign in 16, when the troop-fleet returning from Germany was badly mauled by storms

also fear of half-mythical land

Narcissus,the chief minister, speaks to them and is laughed at - “Io Saturnalia”

Boulogne → Richborough

unopposed landing in three squadrons (perhaps the British were put off-guard by reports of the mutiny, and felt that, like Caligula's, Claudius' invasion would be called off)

Caratacus adopts guerrilla tactics, but Plautius manages to bring him to battle at the R Medway

Batavians cross the river upstream and attack from the side

Vespasian leads a frontal assault

Caratacus heavily defeated

loss of prestige → allies begin to desert the Catuvellauni

a similar battle on the R Thames – defeated again

fighting on the approach to Colchester

Cassius Dio: Plautius became afraid and advanced no further (more likely that he was waiting for the Emperor to come up from Rome)

Caratacus retreats westward to Wales

Claudius enters Colchester on an elephant

shrine of Camulos (widely-worshipped war god) desecrated

foundations for a Roman temple laid there

Results

Claudius in Britain for 16 days

received submission of 11 kings

Suetonius: he received the surrender of the island without a single battle or any bloodshed (either very ill-informed, or he wants to play down the achievement, or to play it up)

Senate voted him a triumph

a triumphal arch was erected in Rome in 51, and another in Gaul (probably at Boulogne)

his son was voted the title Britannicus

coins were issued with de Britannis (from Britain) on the back

alliances were made with:

Cogidubnus (Atrebates)

Prasutagus (Iceni)

Cartimandua (Brigantes)

no mention of Verica …..

this protects the Roman flanks

Suetonius: Claudius decreed an ovation for Plautius and walked on his left as a mark of respect

the last ever ovation given to a Roman general

(triumphs were now reserved solely for emperors)

But was it really a successful conquest??

Britain was never fully conquered

only slow progress was made (took 100 years to reach the Clyde)

10% of the entire Imperial army was required as a garrison

only the ablest generals were made governors

Britain was the only Roman province in Europe not to end up speaking a Latin-based language

Tacitus: incorporation was gradual

Military Campaigns – 43-59AD

Tacitus Annals

20 Valeria remained in Colchester

2 Augusta under Vespasian went into the West Country, ending up at Exeter

probably with close naval support

Suetonius: he fought the enemy 30 times, and conquered two of the strongest tribes

defeated the Durotriges at Maiden Castle (skeleton with ballista bolt in his spine)

9 Hispana struck north, ending up at Lincoln

14 Gemina headed into the Midlands, ending up at Leicester

the line Exeter-Lincoln became the “border”

broadly the same as the Severn-Wash line dividing arable, coin-using south-east from pastoral, cattle-loving north-west

the two camps were joined by a road raised on an embankment – the Fosse Way

47 – the Romans now have a firm grip on the south

Plautius replaced by Ostorius Scapula (no more is heard of him – his wife seems to have become a Christian, and this presumably counted against him)

Ostorius sets about disarming the southern tribes

the Iceni rise, but Ostorius puts down the revolt using only auxiliaries

by 49, the Romans were exploiting the lead/silver mines in the Mendip Hills south of Bath

Mendip lead pig – lead ingot stamped with the Emperor's name

Ostorius leads the legions to the Mersey, building forts at Gloucester and Wroxeter

the Welsh tribes are now hemmed in

Caratacus leads the Silures on raids into the Midlands

Tacitus: no severity, no leniency made any difference to the Silures

51 – Caratacus is defeated in a battle on the Severn

flees to Brigantia and seeks protection from Cartimandua

she hands him over to the Romans

in Rome he pleads for his life

Claudius again goes one better than Caesar (who did not spare Vercingetorix, the Gaulish resistance leader), and lets him live

Tacitus: If you wish to rule the world, does it follow that everyone else should welcome enslavement?

a revolt by the Silures is suppressed

Ostorius dies and is replaced by Didius Gallus

Tacitus: he only held on to our existing conquests (ie he didn't try to extend them)

civil war in Brigantia between Cartimandua (pro-Roman) and Venutius (anti-Roman)

9 Hispana intervenes on behalf of Cartimandua

54 – Claudius is poisoned, and Nero becomes Emperor

Suetonius: he even contemplated withdrawing from Britain

there must have been doubts about the economic wisdom of staying in Bitain

did rumours of this encourage the idea of rebellion?

Didius Gallus → Verianus Nepos (dies) → Suetonius Paullinus

military tombstones (eg from Gloucester and Cirencester) suggest a concentration of troops on the western front

The Iceni Revolt – 60-61AD

Tacitus Annals, Cassius Dio

Suetonius: the British disaster, in which large numbers of Roman citizens and their allies were slaughtered

60 – Suetonius Paullinus takes 14 Gemina and 20 Valeria north to attack Anglesey

main Druid centre

storms the island at Menai Bridge

desecrates Druid groves

Prasutagus, husband of Boudicca, dies

hopes to retain at least part of the kingdom for his family, so his will divides it between Nero and his daughters

the procurator, Decianus Catus, takes it all

when Boudicca protests, he has her flogged and her daughters raped

the king's relatives are treated like slaves

Iceni landowners are evicted from their land

Tacitus gives the above reasons

also demands the return of Claudian donations (which the Iceni nobles had assumed were gifts)

speculators such as Seneca also start demanding the return of their loans

Cassius Dio gives the above reasons, and also has Boudicca give two more reasons:

they have lost their freedom

taxes are excessive

[note that Tacitus concentrates on honour and justice, while Cassius Dio, writing a century later, concentrates on financial matters]

Tacitus: the Britons readily submit so long as there are no abuses

[Cassius Dio was writing a century later, and had access to official records. But Tacitus was able to speak to people who had witnessed these events, especially Agricola, his father-in-law. In general, therefore, Tacitus should be considered more reliable.]

unable to stand any more, the Iceni rise

joined by the Trinovantes – they have seen their farms taken over to give land to veterans

Tacitus: the new colonists had expelled them from their homes and driven them from their land

Colchester is attacked

inhabitants take refuge in the temple, which is burned down (hated symbol of Roman domination)

9 Hispana under Petilius Cerialis moves south from Lincoln to engage the rebels, but is defeated

rare instance of a native host defeating a Roman legion

Suetonius Paullinus hurries back from Wales

moves ahead of the legions to London, but realises it cannot be defended

moves back to meet the legions in the Midlands

orders 2 Augusta in Exeter to move north

the acting commander refuses (he commits suicide after the rebellion is over)

cowardice? it may have prevented the Silures joining the rising

the Iceni massacre the inhabitants of London, and burn it

same at St Albans

70,000 are killed in the towns

reflected in the destruction layer in the archaeological record

they move north to meet Suetonius Paullinus

a huge host, with wagons of loot

they attack, and are driven back by the legions against the wagons

the wagons impede their movement, and they are cut to pieces

Tacitus: 80,000 killed, only 400 Romans killed

Boudicca committed suicide

Tacitus: the favourable outcome of a single battle restored the province to its old submission

south is reinforced with troops from the Rhine

Suetonius Paullinus intent on retribution

because of the unrest, no crops were planted, so there is widespread starvation

new procurator, Julius Classicianus, objects to punitive measures

aim is economic recovery – if everyone is dead, who will pay the taxes?

as a Gaul, he favours reconciliation

can probably speak to the Britons in their own language

Classicianus' tombstone was found in London

suggest London was the administrative capital by the 60s

Suetonius Paullinus is recalled and replaced by Petronius Turpilianus

Tacitus: he did not provoke the enemy, nor was he provoked by them (ie he did nothing much)

Reconstruction and Expansion – 62-77AD

Tacitus Histories

Petronius Turpilianus → Trebellius Maximus

Tacitus: Trebellius was not inclined to action and led an easy-going administration

Nero withdraws 14 Gemina for the war against Parthia

(both Turpilianus and Trebellius must have been successful enough to make it safe to withdraw a legion)

increasing economic prosperity (rebuilding boom)

vast quantities of Roman goods (eg Samian bowls - mould-decorated pottery) flood into Britain

68 – Nero commits suicide

69 – Year of the Four Emperors (Galba → Otho → Vitellius → Vespasian)

Tacitus: no other legions conducted themselves with greater integrity than those in Britain

new governor Vettius Bolanus

Tacitus: he governed with a gentler hand than a warlike province requires

69 – civil war (again) in Brigantia

Tacitus: Cartimandua divorced Venutius and made his armour-bearer Vellocatus her husband

Venutius was also taking advantage of the instability in the Empire

anti-Roman faction gets help from the Selgovae, and Venutius seizes power

Tacitus: Venutius summoned help from outside

Bolanus rescues Cartimandua

a hostile power on the Roman flank is too dangerous, so preparations are made for annexation

Tacitus: we were left with a war to fight

and of course Vespasian, as the new emperor, would like a military success to prove his credentials

new governor Petilius Cerialis (commanded 9 Hispana during Iceni Revolt)

2 Adiutrix arrives in Britain and moves to Lincoln

Cerialis leads 9 Hispana from Lincoln into Brigantia

Tacitus: the most populous part of the whole province

establishes fort at York

defeats the Brigantes at Stanwick hill fort

establishes fort at Corbridge, near the Tyne

20 Valeria (commanded by Agricola) establishes fort at Carlisle, near the Solway

this is the beginning of the Solway-Tyne line

Tacitus: there were numerous battles, some of them bloody

73 – Julius Frontinus (new governor) attacks and defeats the Silures with 2 Augusta

establishes fort at Caerleon

also forts in mid-Wales

probably begins construction of the fort at Chester

Frontinus was an able general and administrator, and (like Caesar) a writer as well

Agricola's Campaigns – 77-84AD

Tacitus Agricola, Histories

Agricola

born 40AD, died 93AD

native of southern Gaul (Provence)

family name means farmer

in Britain with Suetonius Paullinus (as an officer)

in Britain with Petilius Cerialis (commanded 20 Valeria)

one of the first people to give support to Vespasian in his bid to be emperor

73 – governor of Aquitania

76 – consul

76 – daughter marries Tacitus

77 – governor of Britain

encouraged development and education, including the use of Latin

Tacitus: the unsuspecting Britons called it civilisation, when it was really part of their enslavement

reformed the tax system

Tacitus: made the collection of the corn tax less onerous by cutting out schemes aimed at private gain

annona (corn tax) had potential for corruption

Romans levied grain, to be used to supply the army

they paid for this, but at a price below the market rate

if a community could not supply their quota, they had to buy it at market rates

the only holder of large supplies was the Romans

so they had to buy it from them

there was scope for corruption in setting the quota, or the levy price, or the shortfall purchase price

and of course it was a purely notional transaction – the Romans already had the grain that they were “levying”

the communities also had to deliver the grain to depots

scope for corruption again: the official could specify a depot miles away unless he was suitably bribed

seems as if Tacitus is straining to get examples of Agricola's administration

weren't all governors supposed to stamp out corruption?

or encourage the gradual Romanisation of a province?

without Tacitus' biography, we would know very little of Agricola:

he was here in 79 – two inscriptions mention him:

lead water-pipe from Chester

forum dedication in St Albans

and he won a victory

about as much as we know about many of the other governors

77 – Wales

completes Frontinus' work in securing Wales

moves 2 Adiutrix from Lincoln to Chester to replace 20 Valeria

lead water-pipes from the fort at Chester bear Agricola's name

Ordovices had destroyed a cavalry contingent

Agricola leads 20 Valeria into north Wales, with close naval support from a fleet based in the Mersey

pursues the Ordovices into Snowdonia (dangerous!) and defeats them

Tacitus: almost the entire people was cut to pieces

attacks Anglesey again

79 – Lowland Scotland

20 Valeria moves north from Carlisle to the Clyde

9 Hispana moves north from Corbridge to the Forth

pincer movement that isolates the Selgovae (allies of the Brigantes)

alliance made with the Votadini, corn-producers, who can give supplies to the army

Who went to Scotland first?

Tacitus presents Agricola as leading the first Roman armies to advance to the Clyde-Forth line

but there are suggestions that Bolanus and/or Cerialis may have advanced into Scotland

Tacitus may be playing that down to reflect better on Agricola

Pliny: for nearly 30 years now, Roman armies have gone no farther than the Caledonian Forest

written in the mid-70s, suggesting that this had been done before Agricola's term of office

Statius: your father [Bolanus] penetrated to Thule and the plains of Caledonia; he set look-out posts and forts

but since this is poetry addressed to the son, is he just exaggerating Bolanus' achievements?

Vespasian dies, and Titus becomes emperor

Agricola waits for orders, and Titus tells him to proceed (new emperor → military success)

moves up the east coast of Scotland to the Tay (next inlet beyond the Forth)

allies with the Venicones, who (like the Votadini) are corn-producers

builds the Gask Ridge system (a line of 18 watchtowers)

separates the Highlands from the coast

the first artificial frontier in the Empire

not a defensive structure as such

gives early warning

controls movement

allows trade to be taxed

80 – builds forts on the Clyde-Forth line

81 – Caledonia

Titus dies and Domitian becomes emperor

military success → Agricola is told to proceed

heads north in three groups (dangerous!)

close naval contact

9 Hispana is attacked at night

mauled, but saved by reinforcements

Tacitus skilfully glosses over this near-disaster by emphasising the eventual Roman victory

83 – battle of Mons Graupius against the Caledonian tribes

somewhere inland of Moray Firth

Calgacus leads around 30,000 warriors

Tacitus: robbers of the world

Tacitus: they create a desert and call it peace

they are defeated using 8,000 auxiliaries (including some British troops) and 3,000 cavalry

the legions don't have to lift a finger!

but most of the Caledonians escape into the moutains

84 – transfer to the Danube

Domitian transfers 2 Adiutrix to the Danube

recalls Agricola

Tacitus: jealousy of the emperor

Tacitus: Britain was conquered, and immediately abandoned

it is true that Agricola never held another command post again (= Domitian jealous)

on the other hand, he was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue (not = Domitian jealous)

conquering Scotland fully would in the long term have reduced the garrison required in Britain

but Scotland was economically useless

and the Empire could not afford the short-term expenditure required to gain the long-term benefit

compared to the East and Dacia, Britain was a sideshow

Inchtuthil fort begun in 84

work stopped in 86

existing building was demolished

1 million nails were buried in pits so that the Caledonians could not use them

Legionary locations now standardised as follows:

Caerleon 2 Augusta

York 9 Hispana

Chester 20 Valeria

Pullback – 90-120AD

90s – withdrawal from Caledonia to the Clyde-Forth line

98 – Trajan becomes emperor

aggressively expands the Empire into Dacia and Parthia (Iraq)

100s – evidence of military rebuilding in stone in the south

inscriptions from Caerleon, nearby Gelligaer, and York

100s – fighting in the border area

Newstead (between Forth and Tyne) and Corbridge burned

raids from Solway into Cumbria

more troops sent

withdrawal to the Solway-Tyne line

the forts here are now connected by a paved road, the Stanegate(< Old English stana, stone, and gata, road)

this forms the de facto frontier

Vindolanda (Chesterholm) – life in a Stanegate fort, 95-105

gwyn + llan – White Fort

85-95 – Tungrians (withdrawn to York)

95-105 – Batavians (withdrawn to Dacia)

from the Rhine Island (Nijmegen in Holland)

special forces (river-crossings, as in 43)

cavalry

5,000 in the Roman army, led by their own nobles

105-122 – Tungrians

wooden writing tablets preserved in the peaty soil

no references to fighting – about day-to-day life, camp duties, etc

Brittunculi - “nasty little Brits” (fuzzy-wuzzies)

vicus (veteran settlement) outside the fort

pub, gambling-dens, baths, inn/brothel

lawless (in Newstead two skeletons were discovered under a false floor, one with a knife in his ribs)

270 – inhabitants moved inside the fort, which was no longer manned at full strength

107 – 9 Hispana disappears

formerly thought it had been lost in the fighting here

but the view now is that it was withdrawn to fight in the East

117 – Hadrian becomes emperor

realises that Trajan's conquests have put too much of a strain on the Empire

decides to stabilise the frontier – no new conquests

Tacitus: he gave up what could not be held

SHA: the Britons could not be kept under Roman control

117-119 – serious fighting

2 Augusta and 20 Valeria suffer casualties

3,000 reinforcements from 8 Augusta sent from the Rhine

one of the soldiers, Junius Dubitatus, dropped his shield in the Tyne, and the boss of the shield has been found

Roman names

praenomen (personal)
nomen (family, gens)
cognomen (branch of the family)
- a family could have plebeian (commoner) and patrician (noble) branches
Marcus Tullius Cicero = Marcus from the Cicero branch of the Tullius family
Lois Donnelly Welshie = Lois from the Welsh branch of the Donnelly family
commoners tended not to have a cognomen; aristocrats always had one
the praenomen was the oldest of the three names, but by the late Republic they were so common that people could not be distinguished using them, so they tended to be used only by family or close friends
the praenomen was usually one of 18 common names, and was usually abbreviated:
- Decimus (D.), Gaius (C.), Gnaeus (Cn.), Lucius (L.), Marcus (M.), Publius (P.), Quintus (Q.), Servius (Ser.), Sextus (Sex.), Titus (T.)
- Lucius, Gaius and Marcus were the most common praenomina
- M. Tullius Cicero
the cognomen was originally a nickname, but became hereditary and formalised
- Agricola (farmer), Barbatus (beardy), Caesar (born by cutting, ie a Caesarean section), Cicero (chickpea), Naso (big-nose), Rufus (red-haired), Scaevola (left-handed), Siculus (from Sicily), Tacitus (quiet)
if someone was adopted into another family, he took a new name: the three names of his adoptive father, and his own nomen with the suffix -anus
- when Gaius Octavius Caepias was adopted by Gaius Julius Caesar, he became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (though contemporaries never used this name – he was just called Gaius Julius Caesar)
you could also be given an honorary name by the Senate if you were a great statesman or general
- when Octavian was the last man standing after the Civil Wars of 50-31BC he was awarded the name augustus (venerable): Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus
- Augustus is his name as the first Emperor

Military Differences

British

warrior aristocracy

chief is elected, and supported by council of nobles

bravery in battle → prestige (“hero's portion”)

Druid teaching on transmigration of souls may have contributed here

little armour (some fought naked)

emphasis on personal glory → brave but impetuous rabble

Tacitus: the same boldness in courting danger, and the same panic in avoiding it

used chariots to harry the enemy

battle began with challenges to personal combat (Diodorus Siculus)

yells and horn-blowing to frighten the enemy

long slashing swords – needed space to swing them

Suetonius: [The British are] madly fond of war

Tacitus: They fight separately, and separately are defeated.

Roman

professional, paid (war as a business)

trained, disciplined (march 20km in 5 hours carrying 50 kilos)

clear command structure – general → legate → tribune → centurion

fought in formation

each legion (4,800 men) has 10 cohorts (480 men each)

each cohort has 6 centuries (48 men)

centurion commands a century

optio is second-in-command

the legionary signs on for 20 years + 5 years as a veteran

weapons:

gladius (stabbing sword) – a dagger 60cms long

pilus (javelin) – designed to bend after striking, and make shields impossible to carry

army contained specialist troops:

engineers (at Alesia in Gaul they built 13 miles of ramparts in 1 month)

artillery (as used at Maiden Castle by 2 Augusta under Vespasian – ballista bolt in skeleton)

special forces (Batavians)

Main source : http://kevindonnelly.org.uk/resources/roman_notes.odt

Sources :

Roman Britain: A New History (Buy de la Bédoyère), Thames and Hudson, 2010

The Complete Roman Army (Adrian Goldsworthy), Thames and Hudson, 2003

Roman Britain: Life at the Edge of Empire (Richard Hobbs, Ralph Jackson), British Museum Press, 2010

Roman Britain: A Sourcebook (Stanley Ireland), Routledge, 2008

Exploring the World of the Celts (Simon James), Thames and Hudson, 1993

Roman Britain (Richard Russell Lawrence) Shire Publications, 2010

Literary sources for Roman Britain (JC Mann, RG Penman), LACTOR, 1996

Inscriptions of Roman Britain (Valerie Maxfield, Brian Dobson), LACTOR, 2006

The Wall: Rome's Greatest Frontier (Alistair Moffat), Birlinn, 2010

Conquest: The Roman Invasion of Britain (John Peddie), Sutton publishing, 2005

Bloodline: The Celtic Kings of Roman Britain (Miles Russell), Amberley Publishing, 2010

The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome (Chris Scarre), Penguin, 1995

The Romans in Britain (Brenda Williams), Pitkin Publishing, 2004

Ordnance Survey Map of Roman Britain, 2001

Wikipedia – http://wikipedia.org

Web site link: http://kevindonnelly.org.uk/

Google key word : Roman empire history for kids summary and notes file type : doc

Author :

Kevin Donnelly

kevindonnelly.org.uk

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